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GOVERNMENTS 


OF     THE 


^V  O  R  L  D  : 


THEIR 


HISTORY  AND  STEUCTURE. 


BY 


A.J.  H.  DUGANNE. 

AUTHOR   OF    "man    AND    HIS    MONEY-MEANS,"     "  USES  AND    USUFRUCTS," 
"statics  and  dynamics  OF  POLITICAL  ECONOMY,"  ETC.,    ETC. 


-NEW   YORK: 
JAMES    S.  BURNTON, 

147   GRAND   STREET. 


lasz. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1881, 

By  a.  J.  H.  DUGANNE, 

In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington, 


The  concluding  chapters  of  this  work,  relating  to  Covermnental 
structures,  are  not  accompanied  by  marginal  questions;  but  the  sections 
0/  paragraphs  are  nu7nbered,  in  order  that  teachers  may  review  the 
subjects  by  question  and  answer,  if  it  be  deemed  proper. 


/ 


t>n 


i  ^ 


PKEFACE. 


V         The  title  and  table  of  contents  of  this  book  sufficiently   indi- 
cate its  subject  and  scope.     Simplicity  of  style  and  accuracy  in 


*^      facts  Lave  been  main  considerations  with  the  author. 

'^  All  doctrinal  views  of  political,  social,  or  religious  questions, 

^      have  been  carefully  avoided. 

Since  1860,  several  European  governments,  and  the  United 
States  government,  have  undergone  changes,  following  the 
arbitrations  of  war ;  and  such  transitions  are  herein  considered 
to  the  present  year* 

The  "  History  of  Governments"  is  now  as    complete   as  au- 
thentic data  could  render  it  ;  and  is  commended,  as  a  Book  or 
Shi      Reference,  as  well  as  a  School   Book,  by  many    distinguished 
statesmen  and  scholars  ;  from  whose  numerous  letters  the   fol- 
^     lowing  NOTICES  of  the  work  are  presented. 

y  FROM  HON.  BDWARDS  P.BRBEPONT,  ATTORNEY  GENERAL,  V.  8. 

•      k]  It  is  a  work  of  great  condensation  and  industry;  and  contains  an  immense  amonnl 

i!       Of  most  valunble  information  within  a  small  comparative  space.    As  a  booli  of  relei- 
^      euce  and  instruction,  it  is  of  exceeding  value. 

^v  ^  HON.  GEO.  W.  CLINTON,  BUFF  AID,  N.  T. 

•^         I  regard  it  as  an  admirable  book  of  reference  and  instruction. 

^  HON.  MATTHEW  HALE,  M.  C. 

rji  Remarkable  for  the  amotint  of  information  it  contains  within  a  email  compasi. 

y^       EviTy  le<,'islator,  and,  indeed,  every  intelligent  voter,  would  liiid  it  a  most  eouveuieiit 
^V)       and  valuable  book  of  reference. 

r^  JUDGE  «.  GRAVES,  STATE  PRISON  INSPECTOR. 

It  has  no  equal  as  a  book  of  historical  information  for  schools.  It  is  so  arranged 
and  systematized  that  its  contents  may  be  more  easily  impressed  upon  the  mind  than 
any  work  of  equal  information  I  am  acquainted  with. 

HON.  HENRY  D.  BARTO,  MEMBER  CONSTITUTIONAL  CONVENTION 

Being  a  complete  analysis  of  every  form  of  government,  stated  in  the  plainest  and 
simplest  way,  it  is  an  invaluable  addition  to  the  list  of  school  books,  and  stould  be  in 
tile  hands  of  every  pupil  in  the  land. 

HON.  GIDEON  WALKS,  MEMBER  OP  CONSTITUTIONAL  CONVENTION. 

Mr.  Du^anne's  "History  of  Governments"  contains  a  vast  amount  of  information 
in  a  small  compass.    There  is  not  an  unnecessary  word  in  the  book. 


456578 


II  Opinions. 


HON.  E.  8.  FROSSEB,  H.  0. 

As  a  book  of  reference  and  instruction,  I  know  of  none  equal  to  it  ;  and  I  shall  b« 
gratified  to  aid  its  circulation  tiirougliout  our  country. 

HON.  S.  D.  HAND,  MEM.  CONSTITUTIONAL  CON. 

Containing  a  vast  amount  of  important  information,  in  a  condensed  and  available 
form,  it  mui't  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  every  American  citizen,  as  well  as  a  text  book 
in  our  institutions  of  learning. 

HON.  B.  E.  PERRY,  MEM,  CONSTITUTIONAI,  CON. 

It  is  a  work  of  rare  merit,  pspecially  adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  our  commoD 
schools,  and  need  only  be  understood  to  be  favorably  appreciated. 

HON.  A.  J.  AXLEN,  M.  C. 

It  supplies  a  deficiency  long  felt  by  our  schools.  It  should  be  introduced  into  every 
school  disuict,  as  I  doubt  not  it  will  be. 

GEN.  WM.  H.  MORRIS. 

I  consider  it  the  best  vrork  of  the  kind  I  have  yet  seen.  It  would  be  invaluable  to 
schools. 

HON.  AMASA  J.  PARKER,  JUDGE  OP  SUPREME  COURT. 

I  think  it  cannot  fail  to  be  highly  prized  as  the  most  valuable  historical  compendium 
for  the  use  of  schools.    As  a  book  of  reference  it  deserves  a  place  in  every  library. 

HON.  C.  V.  R.  LUDDINGTON,  MEM.  CONSTITUTIONAL  CON. 

I  have  given  the  "History  of  Governments"  a  careful  examination,  and  regard  it  as 
a  great  accession  to  my  library.  It  is  a  perspicuous  and  sententious  compendium  of 
the  most  important  facts  and  events  in  the  political  history  of  mankind,  which  juetly 
commends  itself  to  every  student. 

HON.  ISRAEL  T.  HATCH,  M.  C. 

Its  usefulness  must  be  generally  recognized.  It  is  rarely  we  find  so  mncb  historical 
information  condensed  in  so  small  a  space. 

JUDGE  LEANDER  S.  KETCHUM 

I  am  particularly  pleased  with  it.  An  experience  of  eight  years  in  teaching  con- 
vinced me  of  the  great  importance  of  a  general  knewledge  of  the  ancient  organization 
of  governments.  This  is  the  first  thing!  have  seen  calculated  to  assist  a  desirable 
study. 

HON.  MARTIN  I.  TOWNSBND,  M.  C. 

It  is  very  rare  that  any  work  conveys  such  an  amount  of  instruction  in  so  concise 
and  reliable  a  form. 

HON.  NATHANIEL  JARVIS,  N.  Y.  CITY. 

A  most  thorough  and  instructive  assistant:  combining  brevity  and  accuracy  of  de- 
tail with  simplicity  and  succinctness  of  style;  and  so  well  adapted  to  teacher  and  schol- 
ar that  I  hope  it  may  be  found  in  our  schools. 

A.  D.  GILLETTE,  D.  D. 

I  consider  the  issue  of  such  a  work  most  timely— we  need  just  the  information  this 
book  gives,    its  compactness  and  comprehensiveness  are  amazing. 

DIST.  ATTORNEY  A.  OAKEY  HALL. 

Its  Statements  of  familiar  propositions,  and  its  illustrations  of  political  history 
make  this  professedly  "pupil"  book  a  means  of  interest  to  the  professional  teacher. 
It  should  belong  to  the  common  school  department  of  every  state,  and  be  introduced 
by  legislative  sanction.  ' 

UON.  J.  W.  EDMONDS,  JUDGE  OP  SUPREME  COURT. 

I  have  examined  this  work  with  care,  and  am  struck  with  the  plain  and  simple  man- 
ner in  which  are  treated  the  essential  elements  of  bistory,  as  connected  with  all  gov- 
ernments, it  must  be  an  excellent  school  book.  It  will  be  more  than  that  tome;  for  it 
is  already  for  me  a  "ready  reference"  to  the  more  important  parts  of  history. 

HON.  WM.  CURTIS  NOYES,  L.  L.  D. 

Hike  the  book  on  governments  exceedingly.  It  is  full  to  overflowing  of  what  is 
most  valuable  and  what  all  young  persons  ought  to  know.  The  author^s  power  of 
compressing,  as  well  as  of  expression,  is  remarkable. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

The  Natural  Laws  of  Nations, 

CHAPTER  II. 

Combination  of  Individuals,      . 

CHAPTER  III., 
Progress  of  Society,  .... 

CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Patriarchal  System,  .... 

CHAPTER  V. 
Emigration  from  the  Family,     . 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Nomadic,  or  Wandering  Life,  . 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Settled  Tribe-life, 

CHAPTER  VIIL 
Natural   Equality, 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Early  Democracy,  .  .  .  •  • 

CHAPTER  X. 
Partier.  in  a  Democracy,  .... 

CHAPTER  XI. 

A  Commonwealth  or  Republic, 


II 


»7 


22 


25 

28 


34 
36 
38 
40 
44 


iv  Contents. 

CHAPTER  XII.  PAGi 

Indepenaence  of  a  State,  ...«•••     45 

CHAPTER  Xlil 

Increase  of  Wealth,  .....•••     49 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

Growth  of  Classes, 54 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Representation,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         -57 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Early  Aristocracy,  .........     ti2 

CHAPTER  XVII. 
Monarchy,  or  Kingly  Government,    ......     66 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Early  Language  of  Mankind,     .  .  .  .  .  .  -7' 

CHAPTER  XIX. 
Early  Rehgion  of  Mankind,      .  .  .  .  .         .  '75 

CHAPTER  XX. 
The  Origin  of  Nations, 8 1 

CHAPTER  XXI. 
Hierarchal  Authority, 83 

HIERARCHAL  SYSTEMS  OF  GOVERNMENT. 

CHAPTER   I. 
Theocracy  of  the  Hebrews, 85 

CHAPTER  n. 
The  Ethiopian  Hierarchy, 95 

CHAPTER  m. 
The  Egyptian  Hierarchy,  . -99 

CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Hindu  Hierarchy, 107 

*           CHAPTER  V. 
The  Theocracy  of  ThJbet, 115 

CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Roman  Hierarchal  Monarchy,  .         ,         .         ,         •     117 


Contents. 


ANCIENl  REPUBLICAN  SYSTEMS  OF  GOVERNMENT. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Syrian  and  Arabian  Religious  Republics,     . 

CHAPTER  II. 

Canaanite  Republican  Tribes,  . 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Phcenician  Confederacy,    . 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  Carthaginian  Commercial  States, 

CHAPTER  V. 
The  Grecian  Tribes,        .... 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Repubhc  of  Athens, 

CHAPTER  Vn. 
The  Lacedemonian  Republic,    . 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Other  Grecian  States,      .... 


CHAPTER  IX. 
The  Roman  Commonwealth,    . 


.      I  20 


126 
161 


ANCIENT  MONARCHICAL  SYSTEMS  OF  GOVERNJIENT. 

CHAPTER   I. 
The  Assyrian  Despotic  Monarchy, 183 

CHAPTER   II. 
The  Medean  Despotism, 187 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Persian  Despotism, .         .190 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Macedonian  MiUtary  Monarchy, 19  "J 

CHAPTER  V. 
The  Roman  Empire, 197 


vi  Contents. 

EARLY  LIMITED  MONARCHIES. 

CHAPTER   I.  PA3B 

The  Gothic  Nations, 203 

CHAPTER  II. 
Normans  and  Saxons,      .......>  206 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Frankish  or  French  Monarchy,  ......  208 

CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Visigoth  and  Moorish  Monarchies, 214 

GOVERNMENTS  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

CHAPTER  I. 
The  Holy  Roman  Empire  of  Germany, 217 

CHAPTER  II. 
The  Feudal  System  and  Chivalry, 220 

CHAPTER  III. 
Origin  of  Slavery, 228 

MODERN  MONARCHIES. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Persian  and  Turkish  Despotisms, 234 

CHAPTER  II. 
Cliinese  Patriarchal  Despotisms,         ...  ,  .  238 

CHAPTER  III. 
Japanese  Military  Despotism, 248 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Russian  Feudal  Despotism, 252 

CHAPTER  V. 
The  Prussian  Military  Despotism, 259 

CHAPTER  VI. 
The  Austrian  Absolute  Monarchy, 266 


Contents. 


Vll 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Brunswick — Saxony — Wartemberg,  . 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Danish  Kingdom,     .... 

CHAPTER  IX. 
Norway  and  Sweden,       .... 

CHAPTER  X. 
Government  of  Great  Britain, . 

CHAPTER  XI. 
The  Spanish  Monarchy, 

CHAPTER  XII. 

The  Portuguese  Monarchy, 

CHAPTER  Xm. 
The  Brazilian  Empire,     .         .         . 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

The  Government  of  the  French, 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Constitutional  Kingdoih  of  Belgium,  . 

CHAPTER   XVI. 

Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,   . 


CONFEDERATIONS  AND  REPUBLICS  OF  EUROPE. 

CHAPTER   I. 
The  German  Confederation, 

CHAPTER  n. 
The  Swiss  Confederation, 

CHAPTER   III. 
Italian  Republics, 

CHAPTER   IV. 
Hanseatic  League  of  Free  Cities, 

CHAPTER  V. 

Modern  Free  Cities,         ...  •         . 


269 
272 
274 
277 
288 
289 
291 
292 
297 


300 
302 

305 
318 

320 


viii  Contents. 


A3IERICAN  REPUBLICAN  STATES. 


PAG8 


Republican  States  of  North  and  South  America,        .       .        .  326 

GOVERNJIENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  President,  the  Congress,  the  Judiciary,  and  the  Cabinet,     .  331 
In  addition  to  the  historical  chapters,  on  governmental  structures,  an 

Appendix  comprises  chapters  as  follows: 

POPULAR   GOVERNMENT. 

Chapter   I Charter  Grants , , 347 

II Nationalities . .   351 

III. Villages  and  Towns 352 

IV .-County  Government .^ 354 

V Legislatures 356 

VI Municipal  Government 359 

VII- -State  Government ..^  361 

COLONIZATION  AND  COMBINATION. 

Chapter   I Migrations -_.  364 

"       II Conquest - « 366 

"     III Annexation-- ..^ 368 

"      IV Autonomy  of  States ^ 370 

COMITY  OF  NATIONS. 

Chapter  I Treaties - 373 

"       II Comity  and  Autonomy .-  375 


HISTORY   OF  GOVERNMENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE    NATURAL   LAWS    OF    NATIONS. 

I. — (1.)  The  progress  of  every  nation  resembles  the  growth  of  a 
single  human  being.  (2.)  It  is  also  marked  by  epochs  or  seasons, 
like  the  natural  year  that  divides  time.  (3.)  The  first  epoch  of  a 
nation  is  its  Infancy,  or  Spring-time,  which  is  the  season  when  im- 
pressions are  made  upon  it.  (4.)  The  second  epoch  is  its  Youth,  or 
Summer-time,  which  is  the  season  of  active  labor.  (5.)  The  third 
epoch  is  its  Prime,  or  Autumn,  which  is  the  season  of  skill  and 
strength.  (6.)  The  fourth  epoch  is  its  Maturity,  or  Winter,  which 
is  the  season  of  steadiness  and  repose. 

II. — (1.)  In  the  first  epoch  the  heart  of  a  nation  receives  impret* 
sions.  (2.)  This  is  because  human  affections  are  called  into  action. 
(3.)  Individuals  depend  upon  each  other  for  assistance  and  defence. 
(4.)  They  help  one  another  to  obtain  food,  and  to  overcome  natural 
obstacles  and  dangers.     (5.)  This  mutual  assistance  forms  a  bond 

I. — (1.)  What  does  the  progress  of  a  nation  resemble?  (2.)  How  is  it 
otherwise  marked?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  first  epoch  of  a  nation?  (4.)  Of 
the  second?     (5.)  Of  the  third?     (6.)  Of  the  fourth  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  takes  place  in  the  first  epoch?  (2.)  Why  is  this?  (3.)  What 
is  said  of  individuals?  (4.)  What  do  they  do?  (5.)  What  is  the  eflfect  of 
this  mutual  assistance?    (6.)  Of  what  is  mutual  assistance  the  beginning? 

11 


12  History  of  Governments. 

to  unite  one  person  with  another.     (6.)  It  is  the  beginning  of  a 
connection  between  human  beings,  which  is  called  Society. 

III. —  (1.)  In  the  second  epoch  the  limbs  of  a  nation  grow  strong 
and  active.  (2.)  This  is  because  every  individual  seeks  to  improve 
his  condition,  and  help  others  to  improve  theirs.  (3.)  One  man 
assists  another  to  hunt,  or  fish,  or  build  a  house.  (4.)  One  person 
teaches  to  his  fellows  whatever  he  learns  himself.  (5.)  In  this 
way  all  the  individuals  act  together,  like  limbs  of  one  body, 
(o.)  They  combine  their  labor  and  skill,  in  order  that  each  may  be 
benefited. 

IV. — (1.)  During  the  second  epoch  people  learn  by  experience 
and  by  observation.  (2.)  Experience  means  whatever  a  person 
suffers,  or  undergoes,  or  enjoys.  (3.)  When  he  suffers  cold,  or 
undergoes  hardship,  or  enjoys  food  or  drink,  he  experiences  those 
things.  (4.)  Observation  is  the  memory  of  experience,  by  which  it 
may  be  known  another  time.  (5.)  When  a  person  closes  his  eyes, 
he  experiences  darkness.  (6.)  When  he  remembers  the  darkness  he 
experienced,  he  may  be  said  to  have  observed  it. 

v.— ^(I.)  When  a  person  closes  his  eyes  at  one  time,  and  opens 
them  at  another,  he  finds  the  effects  different,  through  observation. 
(2.)  He  compares  one  effect  with  the  other,  and  learns  that  shutting 
his  eyes  causes  darkness,  and  opening  them  reveals  light.  (3.)  In 
this  way  he  explains  effects  and  causes  by  experience  and  obser- 
vation. (4.)  This  method  of  explanation  becomes  constant  and 
familiar.  (5.)  The  individual  applies  it  to  everything  that  occurs 
in  his  daily  life. 


m. — (1.)  What  occurs  during  the  second  epoch?  (2.)  Why  is  this? 
(3.)  How  is  this  done  ?  (4.)  In  what  other  manner?  (5.)  What  is  the  effect? 
(6.)  What  do  they  do? 

rV. — (1.)  What  else  takes  place  during  the  second  epoch?  (2.)  What  ifl 
raediathy  Experiertce?  (3.)  Give  an  example  of  experience  ?  (4.)  What  is 
Observation?  (5.)  What  is  said  about  experience?  (6.)  What  about 
observation  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  is  discovered  through  observation?  (2.)  What  is  learned  by 
these  operations  ?  (3.)  What  is  explained  ?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  this  explana- 
tion?    (5.)  How  does  an  individ.al  apply  it? 


The  Natural  Laws  of  Nations.  13 

VI  — (1.)  The  result  of  experience  and  observation  is  known  br 
the  name  of  Education.  (2.)  The  terra  comes  from  a  Latin  word, 
tduco,  signifying  "to  lead  or  draw  out."  (3.)  Experience  leads 
or  draws  out  memory  and  comparison.  (4.)  Observation  draws 
out  a  person's  thoughts,  causing  intelligei;ce.  (5.)  When  education 
is  sound  and  active,  the  intelligence  of  an  individual  or  a  nation 
expands  as  it  proceeds. 

VII. — (1.)  In  the  third  epoch,  the  body-politic  of  a  nation  is 
formed.  (2.)  The  body-politic  means  a  union  of  education  and 
activity  in  the  mind  and  limbs  of  a  community.  (3.)  This  uuion  is 
known  as  political  life,  and  causes  government  or  organized  power. 
(4.)  Government  signifies  the  power  of  regulating  the  actions  of  a 
number  of  individuals,  according  to  the  desire  of  one,  or  several, 
or  all. 

VIII. — (1.)  In  the  fourth  epoch,  a  nation  ought  to  be  peaceful 
and  strong.  (2.)  All  persons  in  a  community  ought  to  be  alike  to 
one  another,  as  members  of  the  body-politic.  (3.)  One  should  be 
assisted  in  obtaining  happiness  in  the  same  way  that  another  is 
assisted.  (4.)  The  life  of  one  person  should  be  safe  just  as  the 
life  of  another  is  safe.  (5.)  Accordingly  as  the  mind  and  heart  of 
a  nation  have  been  educated,  this  will  be  the  case  or  not.  (6.)  If 
they  have  been  guided  properly  in  the  three  former  epochs,  the 
fourth  epoch  will  be  quiet  and  secure.  (1.)  If  they  have  beea 
misdirected  in  those  seasons,  the  fourth  will  be  marked  with  trouble 
and  suffering. 

IX.  (I.)  The  same  laws  of  health  and  happiness  that  apply  to  a 

VI. — (1.)  How  is  the  result  of  these  operations  iinown?  (2.)  From  wha-t 
does  the  term  proceed?  (3.)  What  does  experience  draw  out?  (4.)  What 
does  observation  draw  out  ?     (5.)   What  is  said  of  education  ? 

Vn. — (1.)  What  takes  phice  at  the  third  epoch?  (2.)  What  is  meant  by 
the  body-politic?  (3.)  What  about  this  union?  (4.)  What  does  government 
eignifv  ? 

VIII. — (1.)  What  ought  to  be  the  character  of  the  fourth  epoch? 
(2.)  What  is  said  of  persons  in  a  community?  (3.)  What  should  be  done? 
(4.)  What  should  be  secured?  (5.)  On  what  does  this  depend?  (6.)  What 
if  they  have  been  propeily  guided  ?     (T.)  What  if  they  have  been  misdirected  f 

EK. — (1.)  What  is  remarked  concerning  the  laws  of  health  and  happiness? 


14  History  of  Governments. 

haman  individual  apply  also  to  a  community.  (2,)  A  community 
or  nation  signifies  a  number  of  persons  combined.  (3.)  It  is  a  col- 
lection or  multiplication  of  individuals.  (4.)  The  proper  education 
of  a  nation  begins  with  the  proper  teaching  of  one  person  as  a 
member  of  the  collection. 

X. — (1.)  A  collection  of  several  individuals  is  called  society. 
(2.)  When  they  are  combined  to  help  each  other,  they  become  or- 
ganized, and  form  a  state  or  nation.  (3.)  When  they  make  regula- 
tions to  guide  one  another,  they  create  a  government,  and  their 
regulations  are  known  as  laws 

XI. — (1.)  An  organized  collection  of  individuals  is  the  body- 
politic.  (2.)  If  an  individual  is  in  health  he  stands  erect,  and  is 
able  to  move  and  act  as  a  human  being.  (3.)  His  blood  flows  in 
regular  currents,  and  every  limb  or  organ  performs  its  functions  in 
harmony  with  other  limbs  and  organs.  (4.)  A  state  is  in  health 
when  the  rights  and  duties  of  every  member  are  distinctly  defined 
and  clearly  understood.  (5.)  When  the  interests  of  citizens  do  not 
conflict,  a  community  or  body-politic  is  said  to  enjoy  political  and 
social  health. 

XII. — (1.)  No  human  body  enjoys  unvarying  health,  with  entire 
freedom  from  pain  or  liability  to  contract  disease.  (2.)  In  every 
stage  of  life,  the  liuman  body  is  susceptible  to  injury  from  many 
causes.  (3.)  Changes  of  climate  and  temperature,  and  other  agen- 
cies, interrupt  the  continuance  of  bodily  health. 

XIII. — (1.)  In  like  manner,  no  community  or  body-politic  has 


(2.)  What  does  a  community  signify?  (3.)  Of  what  is  it  a  collection? 
(4.)  How  does  its  proper  education  begin? 

X. — (1.)  What  is  the  collection  of  individuals  called?  (2.)  How  do  they 
become  organized,  and  what  do  they  then  form?  (3.)  What  takes  place  when 
they  make  regulations  ? 

XL— (1.)  Explain  the  body-politic.  (2.)  What  is  said  of  an  individual  in 
liealth?  (3.)  How  is  his  health  manifested  ?  (4.)  When  is  a  body-politic  or 
state  in  health  ?     (5.)  How  is  the  health  of  a  community  known  ? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  is  said  about  a  human  body?  (2.)  To  what  is  the  bodj 
susceptible  ?     (3.)  What  interrupt  its  health  ? 

XUL — (1.)  ■^Vhat  is  remarked  in  regard  to  the  community  or  body-politif  ? 


The  Natural  Laws  of  Nations.  13 

beea  known  to  endure,  for  any  long  period,  without  abuses  of  its 
political  well-being.  (2.)  Derangements  take  place,  because  social 
life  is  subject  to  change  and  injury,  just  as  individual  life  is  liable  to 
the  same.  (3.)  It  is  to  preserye  the  individual  bodily  health  that 
the  skill  of  physicians  and  aid  of  medicine  are  found  necessary. 
(4.)  In  the  same  way,  laws  and  regulations  of  government  are  re- 
quisite to  maintain  social  and  political  health.  (5.)  These  laws 
must  correct  all,  deviations  from  just  principles,  and  secure  to  every 
element  of  society  its  proper  place  and  action. 

XIV. — (1.)  A  wise  physician  knows  that  entire  physical  health 
is  not  compatible  with  mortal  life.  (2.)  He  applies  his  knowledge 
and  skill  to  the  discovery  of  causes  and  cures  of  disease.  (3.)  In 
like  manner,  a  good  statesman  or  citizen  does  not  look  for  perfection 
in  the  operations  of  any  political  system.  (4.)  He  seeks,  through 
experience  and  observation,  to  discover  what  form  and  spirit  of 
laws  are  best  fitted  to  meet  the  wants  of  combined  individuals  or 
society.  (5.)  He  endeavors  to  harmonize,  as  far  as  possible,  all 
the  elements  of  a  community.  (6.)  He  tries  to  equalize  their  po- 
litical and  social  rights,  privileges,  burdens,  and  benefits. 

XV. — (1.)  Every  human  body  is  liable  to  be  attacked  by  outward 
elements  dangerous  to  its  health.  (2.)  Too  much  heat  or  cold, 
water,  fire,  wind,  and  other  forces,  threaten  it  always.  (3.)  Every 
human  body  is  subject  to  abuse,  derangement,  and  decay,  from 
neglect  or  injury.  (4.)  Every  body-politic  or  commuuity  is  also 
opposed  by  foreign  elements,  or  enemies.  (5.)  It  is  liable  to  inter- 
nal disorders,  growing  out  of  a  disregard  of  rights  and  duties. 
(6.)  Political  and  social  health  sufi'er  more  or  less  from  these 
causes. 

(2.)  Why  do  derangements  take  place?  (3.)  What  are  necessary  to  preserve 
bodily  health  in  an  individual?  (4.)  What  are  requisite  for  social  and  political 
health?     (5.)  What  must  these  laws  effect? 

XIV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  wise  physician?  (2.)  How  does  he  apply  his 
knowledge  and  skill?  (2.)  What  about  a  good  citizen?  (4.)  What  does  he 
seek?     (5.)  What  is  his  endeavor?     (6.)  IIow  does  he  effect  this ? 

XV — (1.)  To  what  is  the  human  body  liable?  (2.)  What  threaten  it? 
(3.)  To  what  is  it  subject?  (4.)  How  does  the  body-politic  resemble  the 
human  body?  (5.)  To  what  is  the  body-politic  liable?  (6.)  Wha',  result 
takes  place  ? 


1 6  History  of  Governments. 

XVI. — (1.)  Danger  threatens  a  state  on  account  of  the  neigh- 
borhood of  ambitious  or  unruly  states  foreign  to  itself.  (2.)  Dan- 
ger threatens  it  from  the  attacks  of  wandering  people  who  come 
out  of  other  parts  of  the  earth  in  quest  of  subsistence.  (3.)  Dis- 
order may  arise  in  a  community  by  reason  of  its  containing  bad 
men,  who  contrive  to  usurp  power.  (4.)  Its  members  may  be  de- 
prived of  rights,  or  have  unjust  burdens  imposed  upon  them. 

XVII. — (1.)  When  a  human  body  possesses  robust,  natural 
health,  it  is  in  a  condition  to  endure  or  resist  outward  attacks. 
(2.)  If  it  loses  some  vitality,  the  loss  is  soon  repaired,  because  its 
life-currents  are  not  obstructed.  (3.)  All  its  natural  forces  act  in 
harmony  with  each  other.  (4.)  The  possession  of  a  sound  bodily 
system  renders  an  individual  less  liable  to  injuries  from  without. 
(6.)  He  is  not  in  danger  of  disease  so  long  as  he  keeps  his  system 
properly  nourished  and  protected.  (6.)  Some  portion  of  his  body 
must  be  weakened  before  disease  can  attack  him. 

XVIII. —  (1.)  A  body-politic  is  influenced  by  similar  causes,  and 
undergoes  like  operations.  (2.)  Its  health  and  life  are  governed  by 
laws,  and  subject  to  agencies  of  injury,  corresponding  to  those  which 
atfect  an  individual.  (3.)  As  "  the  child"  is  said  to  be  "  father  of 
the  man,"  so  an  individual  serves  as  a  type  or  pattern  of  the  state. 

XVI. — (!•)  How  may  dangers  threaten  a  state?  (2.)  To  what  other  danger 
is  it  liable?  »(3.)  What  else  may  arise?     (4.)  What  may  result  from  this? 

XVII.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  healthy  human  body?  (2.)  What  if  it  loses 
some  vitality  ?  (3.)  How  do  its  natural  forces  act?  (4.)  How  is  an  individual 
benefited  by  a  sound  bodily  system  ?  (5.)  What  advantage  does  he  possess? 
(o.)  What  must  take  place  to  cause  disease? 

XVm.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  body-politic?  (2.)  How  are  its  health  and  lila 
goveroed?     (3.)  What  renr^rk  is  made  concerning  an  individnalP 


CHAPTER  II. 

COMBINATION    OF    INDIVIDUALS. 

1.— (1.)  The  spring-time,  or  infancy,  of  a  community  is  its  seasoQ 
of  natural  health.  (2.)  This  is  more  or  less  robust  according  to  the 
harmony  that  exists  between  the  individuals  combined  together. 
(3.)  In  a  combination  of  individuals,  each  person  may  be  independ- 
ent of  every  other  person.  (4.)  He  may,  on  the  other  hand,  relin- 
quish a  portion  of  his  independence  and  submit  to  be  ruled  by  one 
or  more  of  his  fellows. 

II. — (1.)  In  the  infancy  of  every  community,  each  individual  mem- 
ber of  it  acted  more  or  less  independently  of  all  other  members. 
(2.)  The  body-politic  was  developed  and  strengthened  in  proportion 
to  the  development  and  growth  of  the  individuals  combined. 
(3.)  The  experience  of  one  man  guided  others,  and  his  observations 
assisted  all  to  whom  he  made  them  known.  (4.)  The  experience 
and  observations  of  each  formed  a  stock  of  knowledge  for  the  com- 
munity. 

III. — (1.)  Every  individual  was  master  of  his  own  actions,  but 
all  were  mutally  dependent.  (2.)  This  was  because  they  exchanged 
one  another's  experiences  and  discoveries.  (3.)  Mutual  dependence 
was  the  link  of  human  intercourse,  and  organized  society  proceeded 
out  of  it  by  degrees. 

rV. — (1.)  A  solitary  human   being  might  be  able  to  tame  wild 

L — (1.)  What  is  the  spring-time  of  a  community?  (2.)  What  about  its 
health?  (3  )  What  may  be  the  character  of  a  combination?  (4.)  What  may 
each  individual  relinquish  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  about  the  infancy  of  every  community  ?  (2.)  How  was  the 
body-politic  developed  ?  (3.)  What  took  place  in  such  a  community  ?  (4.)  What 
was  formed  ? 

m — (1.)  What  is  said  of  every  individual?  (2.)  Why  was  this?  (3.)  What 
is  said  concerning;  mutual  dependence? 

IV. — (1.)  What  individual   power  might  a  solitary  human  being  possess? 

IT 


i8  History  of  Governments. 

animals  and  make  them  his  companions  and  servants.  (2.)  He 
could  teach  the  dog  to  guard  bis  hut,  and  the  horse  to  bear  his 
burden.  (3.)  But  his  combination  with  dogs  and  horses  could  not 
form  a  state.  (4.)  This  is  because  the  bond  of  a  state,  or  com- 
munity, consists  of  mutual  sympathy  and  understanding,  expressed 
by  Imman  language  and  affections.  (5.)  Such  a  bond  could  not  ex- 
ist between  man  and  the  brute  creation. 

V. — (1.)  A  state,  or  human  society,  must  be  founded  in  relations 
of  sympathy,  affection,  and  interest.  (2.)  Accordingly  as  these  re- 
lations harmonize  or  conflict,  so  the  community  is  healthy  or  other- 
wise. (3.)  Common  interests  and  objects  of  society  are  founded 
upon  privileges  and  rights  of  individuals.  (4.)  The  first  right  of 
an  individual  man  is  his  right  to  live,  the  second  is  his  right  to  be 
free,  and  the  third  is  his  right  to  seek  happiness. 

VI. — (1 J  If  two  human  individuals  dwell  together,  in  a  place 
otherwise  uninhabited  by  man,  their  intercourse  is  known  as  society. 
(2.)  Their  combination,  for  mutual  assistance  and  defence,  consti- 
tutes the  simplest  form  of  a  community.  (3.)  Such  combination 
may  be  called  a  state  in  its  infancy.  (4.)  If  one  of  the  two  indi- 
viduals snares  game  in  the  forest,  and  the  other  takes  fish  in  the 
river,  and  they  divide  these  spoils,  they  establish  a  community  of 
food  or  subsistence.  (5.)  If  one  keeps  watch  while  the  other  sleeps, 
to  guard  against  dangerous  animals,  they  form  a  community  of  de- 
fence. (6.)  If  they  sympathize  with  each  other  in  tastes  and  hab- 
its, they  constitute  a  community  of  friendship  or  affection.  (7.)  Com- 
bined in  this  manner  they  are  a  healthy  society,  or  state. 

VII. — (1.)  If  a  third  individual  be  added  to  the  community  of 

(2.)  What  could  he  do  ?  (3.)  What  could  he  not  accomplish?  (4.)  What  waa 
the  reason?     (5.)  Where  could  not  such  a  bond  exist? 

v.— (1.)  On  what  must  a  state  be  founded?  (2.)  What  is  said  regarding 
these  relations?  (3.)  On  what  are  common  interests  and  objects  foflnded? 
(4.)  What  are  the  rights  of  every  individual? 

VI. — ^1.)  Explain  what  is  meant  by  societv?  (2.)  What  is  a  simple  commu- 
nity ?  (3.)  What  may  it  be  called  ?  (4.)  What  is  a  community  of  subsistence? 
(5.)  Describe  a  community  of  defence?  (6.)  What  is  a  community  of  friend- 
ship?    (9.)  What  does  this  constitute  ? 

VII. —  (1.)  What  may  cause  a  separation  of  interests  in  a  simple  community? 


Combination  of  Individuals.  19 

two,  a  separation  of  interests  may  take  place.  (2.)  The  tliird  per- 
son may  possess  greater  physical  strength,  or  be  more  crafty  than  the 
others,  and  so  claim  a  superiority  or  authority.  (3.)  He  may  be 
a,ble  to  unite  one  of  the  original  companions  to  himself,  and  then 
make  the  third  a  servant,  through  fear.  (4.)  Should  such  a  sepa- 
ration of  interests  take  place,  the  society  would  no  longer  consti- 
tute a  healthy  community.  (5.)  The  authority  of  one  individual 
over  his  companions,  maintained  by  his  superior  strength  or  cunning, 
and  because  of  their  weakness,  would  be  disease.  (6.)  It  would 
disturb  the  relations  that  before  existed,  and  endanger  the  individ- 
ual rights  of  life,  of  liljerty,  and  of  happiness. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  forced  inferiority  of  a  portion  of  the  small 
community  to  another  portion  would  allow  unequal  burdens  to  be 
Imposed  upon  the  weakest.  (2.)  The  rights  and  interests  of  the 
latter  would  then  be  destroyed.  (3.)  This  would  cause  disorder  in 
the  entire  body-politic.  (4  )  Such  disorder,  and  conflict  of  individ- 
ual interests,  would  soon  endanger  the  community's  existence. 

IX. — (1.)  The  injured  or  oppressed  persons  might  manifest  their 
sufferings  by  outward  speech  or  action.  (2.)  Such  manifestations 
in  a  community  are  termed  divisions,  conspiracies,  rebellions  and 
revolutions.  (3.)  Sometimes  they  act  like  spasms  of  pain  in  a  hu- 
man body.  (4.)  They  are  always  an  evidence  that  disease  or 
derangement  exists,  and  that  the  community  seeks  relief  from  its 
aflQictions. 

X. — (1.)  Every  human  body  containing  life  must  possess  some 
power  to  manifest  that  life.    (2.)  A  diseased  body-politic,  or  nation, 


(2.)  What  may  the  third  person  possess  and  claim  ?  (3.)  What  may  be  be  able 
to  do?  (4.)  What  would  be  the  effect  ?  (5.)  What  would  the  third  person's 
authority  be?     (6.)  Wliy  would  it  be  disease? 

VIII.  — (1.)  What  would  forced  inferiority  of  a  portion  allow?  (2.)  Wiiat 
would  be  destroyed?  {:].)  What  would  this  cuu:se?  (4.)  What  would  it  en- 
danger ? 

IX.  (1.)  How  would  the  disorder  be  shown?  (2.)  What  are  such  manifes- 
tations called?  (3.)  Uow  do  tlioy  sonieiinies  act?  (4.)  Of  what  are  they  an 
evidence  ? 

"X. — (1.)  What  about  every  human  body?     (2.)  What  of  a  diseased  nation  ? 


20  History  of  Governments. 

may  have  healthy  citizens  who  kaow  when  the  state  is  disordered. 
(3.)  The  healthy  citizens  use  their  faculties  to  show  others  where 
disease  exists.  (4.)  This  sometimes  occasions  a  movement  of  all, 
and  changes  the  whole  state.  (5.)  Such  a  change  is  known  as 
revolution. 

XI. — (1.)  If  three  persons  in  a  community  of  five  submit  to  obey  a 
single  person  as  their  ruler,  they  surrender  their  right  to  be  inde- 
pendent. (2.)  The  agreement  of  three  out  of  five  to  obey,  gives 
one  the  privilege  to  command.  (3.)  The  state  then  becomes  a 
monarchy,  and  the  one  who  commands  is  king.  (4.)  If  four  obey 
one  in  everything,  his  authority  is  absolute.  (5.)  The  state  is  then 
a  despotism.  (6.)  If  four  obey  one  only  at  certain  times,  and  for 
certain  purposes,  and  are  independent  otherwise,  the  ruler's  authority 
is  restricted.     (7.)  The  state  is  then  a  limited  monarchy. 

XII. — (1.)  If  five  persons  forming  a  community  agree  that  three 
may  make  all  regulations,  and  that  one  shall  see  those  regulations 
observed,  the  state  becomes  republican.  (2.)  The  three  persons  who 
make  regulations  are  the  legislature,  or  law-making  power.  (3.) 
The  one  who  takes  care  of  their  observance  is  the  magistrate,  or 
executive  power.  (4.)  This  is  the  form  of  government  called  a 
popular  republic.  (5.)  It  is  popular  because  the  larger  number  of 
all  the  people  agree  in  organizing  the  state. 

XIII. — (1.)  If  three  persons  of  the  five  choose  a  fourth  to 
make  the  laws,  telling  him  what  kind  of  laws  they  wisli  made,  the 
single  person  represents  all.  (2.)  The  state  tlien  becomes  a  repre- 
sentative popular  republic.     (3.)  If  the  three  choose  another  to  be 

(3.)  What  do  healthy  citizens  do?  (4.)  What  does  this  occasion?  (5.)  What 
is  the  change  called  ? 

XI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  community  of  five?  (2.)  What  follows  this  ? 
(3.)  What  takes  place  in  the  state?  (4.)  What  makes  absolute  authority? 
(5.)  What  is  the  state  then  called?  (6.)  What  makes  restricted  authority? 
(7.)  What  does  the  state  then  become  ? 

Xn. — (1.)  How  is  a  republic  formed?  (2.)  What  is  the  Legislature? 
(3.)  What  is  the  Executive  power?  (4.)  What  is  such  form  of  government 
called  ?     (6.)  Why  is  it  popular  ? 

XIII. — (1.)  How  may  one  person  represent  all?  (2.)  What  is  such  a  form 
of   government  called?     (3.)  How   is  a    representative   monarchy  formed? 


Combination  of  Individuals.  21 

kiug,  according  to  the  laws  they  have  made,  they  organize  a  repre- 
sentative monarchy.  (4.)  If  they  allow  a  sou  or  daughter  of  the 
king  to  succeed  the  father  without  their  interference,  the  state 
becomes  a  hereditary  mouarchy.  (5.)  Three  out  of  five  have  , 
always  a  right  to  change  or  modify  any  form  of  government. 
(6.)  This  is  because  three  form  the  larger  number,  or  majority,  of 
five.  (7.)  Whenever  they  surrender  this  right  entirely,  the  state 
becomes  diseased. 

XIV. — (1.)  In  studying  the  history  of  mankind  we  meet  with 
various  forms  of  government.  (2.)  Many  of  these  forms  have  been 
the  cause  of  disorder  in  the  state.  (3.)  History  tells  us  how  the 
people  of  states  have  tried  to  escape  disorder  by  changes  of  gov- 
ernment. (4.)  The  history  of  every  nation  is  an  account  of  individuals 
endeavoring  to  combine  their  several  interests.  (5.)  Those  interests 
have  always  been  comprised  in  the  right  of  each  person  to  live,  to 
be  free,  and  to  seek  for  happiness. 

XV. —  (1.)  When  any  government  is  capable  of  securing  every 
individual  the  enjoyment  of  his  rights,  the  nation  in  which  that 
individual  lives  may  be  called  healthy.  (2.)  All  persons  have  an 
equal  interest  in  maintaining  such  a  state  or  nation,  as  an  entire 
body-politic.  (3.)  It  is  only  by  good  government  that  individual 
rights  can  be  protected.  (4.)  It  is  the  duty  of  every  person  in  a 
community  to  assist  in  making  good  government. 

(4.)  What  makes  a  hereditary  monarchy?  (5.)  What  is  said  of  three  persons 
out  of  five?  (6.)  Why  is  this?  (7.)  What  occurs  when  this  right  is  sur- 
rendered ? 

XIV. — (1.)  What  do  we  meet  with,  in  studying  history?  (2.)  What  have 
many  of  these  forms  cftused  ?  (3.)  What  are  we  told  by  history  ?  (4.)  What 
is  the  history  of  every  nation?     (5.)   In  what  are  those  interests  comprised? 

XV. — (1.)  When  is  a  nation  healthy?  (2.)  In  what  have  all  persons  an  in- 
terest? (3.)  IIow  are  individual  rights  protected?  (4.)  What  is  every  per. 
bod's  duty  ? 


CHAPTER   III. 

PROGRESS    OF    SOCIETY. 

I. — (1.)  The  Creator  of  all  things  saw  fit,  in  his  wisdom,  to  leave 
the  first  parents  of  our  race  to  the  guidance  of  their  own  instincts. 
(2.)  The  development  of  their  capacities  was  to  proceed  out  of  the 
experience  of  each  individual.  (3.)  This  experience  was  to  be 
gained  in  combination  with  other  individuals. 

II, —  (1.)  Divine  foresight  had  measured  the  difficulties  through 
which  mankind  was  to  work  out  its  destiny.  (2.)  God  gave  to 
each  object  that  he  created  certain  capacities.  (3.)  He  placed  all 
the  stores  and  forces  of  nature  at  the  disposal  of  human  beings 
alone 

III. — (1.)  Mankind  was  to  become  powerful  and  enlightened  by 
a  simple  and  natural  progression.  (2.)  Daily  experience,  and  cer- 
tain laws  of  growth  and  expansion,  were  to  direct  and  govern 
every  person.  (3.)  The  same  laws  were  applicable,  in  a  more 
limited  degree,  to  the  vegetable  and  geological  world. 

IV. —  (1.)  An  oak-tree  could  not  spring  at  once  to  luxuriant 
maturity,  but  must  grow  gradually.  (2.)  Its  growth  is  assisted  by 
various  natural  forces.  (3.)  These  forces  work  in  harmonious 
combination. 

v.— (1.)  Heat,  light,  and  moisture,  contribute  their  assistance 

L— (1.)  What  ia  said  of  the  Creator?  (2.)  How  was  the  development  to 
proceed  ?     (3.)  How  was  each  per.«on's  experience  to  be  gained  ? 

II._(1.)  What  had  Divine  foresight  done  ?  (2  )  What  did  God  give  to  each 
creature  ?     (3.)  How  did  He  distinguish  human  beings  ? 

TTT.— (1)  How  was  man  to  be  developed  ?  (2.)  What  were  to  direct  every 
person?     (3.)  To  what  were  the  same  laws  applicable? 

IV.— (1  )  What  is  said  of  an  oak  tree?  (2.)  How  is  its  growth  assisted? 
(3.)  How  do  these  forces  work? 

V. (1.)     What    three   elements    of     nature    contribute    their    assistance? 


Progress  of  Society.  23 

to  the  life  of  every  tree.  (2  )  From  a  small  acoru  hidden  in  the 
earth,  a  tender  sprout  springs  upward.  (3.)  The  sprout  grows, 
and  becomes  clothed  with  bark,  branches,  and  leaves. 

VI. — (1.)  In  like  gradual  process,  the  sun's  heat  draws  mist 
from  the  earth.  (2.)  Clouds  gather  in  the  air,  and  rain  descends 
from  them.  (3.)  Firstly  a  small  mountain  stream  is  formed.  (4.) 
This  stream  widens  into  a  river,  and  broadens  into  a  lake. 

VII. — (1.)  In  course  of  time  trees  wither,  and  molder  back 
into  earth.  (2.)  They  then  undergo  new  influences  of  nature.  (3.) 
They  become  hardened  into  foundations  for  new  forests. 

VIII. — (1.)  Thus  the  laws  of  growth,  development,  and  change, 
govern  physical  nature.  (2.)  The  same  laws,  overwatched  by  an 
all-wise  Creator,  regulate  mankind  in  its  progression.  (3.)  Indivi- 
duals and  nations  are  alike  governed  by  them. 

IX. — (1.)  Mankind  is  first  observed  as  a  pair.  (2.)  This  is  the 
relation  or  community  of  husband  and  wife.  #(3.)  The  intelligence 
of  this  community  was  first  measured  by  the  extent  of  its  expe- 
rience and  observation.  (4.)  Its  desires  were  limited  by  the  instincts 
of  human  nature. 

X. — (I.)  Experience  showed  the  convenience  of  personal  cover- 
ing, as  protection  against  heat  or  cold.  (2.)  Observation  taught 
the  utility  of  precaution  and  defence.  (3.)  Weapons  were  invented 
and  used  against  wild  animals.  (4.)  The  first  rude  attempt  at 
building  was  made  by  arranging  some  bower  or  hut  for  shelter. 

(2.)  How  does  growth  proceed?     (3.)   What  progressive  changes  take  place? 

VI.— (1.)  What  does  the  sun's  heat  do?  (2.)  What  happens  then?  (3. 
What  is  first  formed  from  the  falling  rain  ?     (4.)  What  then  follows  ? 

VII.— (1.)  What  takes  place  in  course  of  time?  (2.)  What  do  they 
undergo?     (,3)   What  do  they  become? 

Vm. — (1.)  W:at  is  said  concerning  certain  laws?  (2  )  What  further  is 
ririiavked?     (3.)   How  do  these  laws  operate? 

IX. — (1.)  How  is  mankind  first  observed  ?  (2.)  What  relation  is  this?  (3.) 
How  was  the  intelligence  of  this  community  measured?  (4.)  How  were  its 
desires  limited  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  did  experience  show  to  this  first  community?  (2.)  What 
did  observation  teach?  (3.)  What  about  weapons?  (4.)  What  abOOt 
building  ? 


24  History  of  Governments. 

XI. — (1.)  By  experience  the  changes  of  temperalare  and  alter- 
nation of  seasons  became  known.  (2.)  Observation  revealed  the 
growth  of  vegetation.  (3.)  The  community  learned  the  time  of 
seed  and  of  harvest,  of  winter  and  summer. 

XII. —  (1.)  The  stores  and  forces  of  nature  opened  to  mankind  a 
source  of  unfailing  subsistence.  (2.)  It  became  known  that  exer- 
tion was  necessary  on  the  part  of  each  individual.  (3.)  The 
community  learned  to  provide  simple  stores  of  clothing  and  food  for 
its  wants.  (4.)  These  stores  accumulated,  and  were  kept  for 
future  use.  (5.)  They  thus  became  separated  from  the  general 
stores  of  nature,  common  to  wild  and  domestic  animals. 

XIII. — (1.)  The  collection  of  such  simple  articles  of  use,  for 
tlieir  reservation  by  the  community,  was  the  beginning  of  owner- 
ship. (2.)  The  articles  kept  became  frojierty.  (3.)  The  idea  of 
property,  or  ownership,  thus  grew  out  of  prudence  in  reserving  stores 
for  the  future. 

XIV. — (1.)  The 'community  was  to  grow  larger,  and  a  new 
bond  of  interest  was  to  be  added  to  the  household.  (2.)  The 
family  of  two,  or  husband  and  wife,  was  to  become  a  family,  or 
community,  of  three — husband,  wife,  and  child. 

XI. — (1.)  What  became  known  by  experience?  (2.)  What  did  observation 
reveal  ?     (3.)  What  did  the  community  learn  ? 

XH. — (1.)  What  was  now  opened  to  mankind?  (2.)  What  was  also  shown 
to  be  necessary?  (3.)  What  did  the  community  learn  ?  (4.)  What  of  these 
stores  ?     (5.)  From  what  were  these  stores  separated? 

XIII. — (1  )  What  was  the  beginning  of  ownership?  (2.)  What  did  the 
artii-lfs  become?     (3.)  From  what  did  the  idea  of  property  grow? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  was  to  take  place  in  the  community?  (2.)  What  WM 
*"ve  family  of  husband  and  wife  to  become  ? 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE    PATRIARCHAL    SYSTEM. 

I. — (1.)  The  commuuity  of  husband,  wife,  and  child,  was  tlie  first 
form  of  famihsm,  or  domestic  societ}-.  (2.)  As  time  passed,  the 
members  of  this  community  grew  numerous.  (3.)  It  became  neces- 
sary to  distinguish  one  individual  from  another,  by  more  particular 
designations  than  the  terms,  parents,  brethren,  and  children. 
(4.)  Male  and  female  names  were  bestowed  or  adopted.  (5.)  The 
division  and  classiGcation  of  descendants  then  began. 

II. — (1.)  The  first-born  son  and  his  children  were  supposed  to 
represent  a  direct  succession.  (2.)  They  were  held  distinct  from 
the  descendants  of  the  second-born  son.  (3.)  This  separation  of 
children  was  made  for  the  convenience  of  the  household  or  family 
society.  (4.)  It  was  the  first  step  toward  wider  social,  and  future 
political,  divisions. 

III. — (1.)  The  distinction  enjoyed  by  a  first-born  son  and  hia 
descendants  constituted  what  was  called  their  birthright.  (2.)  They 
claimed  a  sort  of  authority  over  their  other  brethren,  from  genera- 
tion to  generation. 

IV. — (1.)  The  first  father  was  considered  during  his  life  to  be 
bead  of  the  household.  (2.)  He  exercised  the  highest  influence  iu 
deciding  differences.  (3.)  He  dispensed  such  lessons  of  knowledge 
3,3  his  more  extensive  experience  and  observation  had  accumulated. 

I. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  community  of  husband,  wife,  and  child? 
2.)  What  took  place  as  time  passed?  (3.)  What  became  necessary? 
4.)  What  was  then  done?     (6.)  What  was  begun  ? 

n.— (1.)— What  were  the  first-born  supposed  to  represent?  (2.)  How 
rere  their  descendants  held  ?  (3.)  Why  was  this  separation  made?  (4.)  To 
/rbat  did  it  lead  ? 

m.— (1.)  What  constituted  birthright?  (2.)  What  claim  did  this  birth- 
.-ight  allow  ? 

IV.— {\     How  was  the  first  father  regarded ?     (2.)   What  did  he  exercise? 

f3.)  What  did  he  dispense  ? 

2  ** 


26  History  of  Governments. 

V. — (1.)  In  this  relation  the  first-born  was  venerated  and 
obeyed  by  his  children  and  their  offspring.  (2.)  He  occupied  the 
position  of  father  or  patriarch.  (3.)  His  authority  constituted  that 
form  of  domestic  control  which  is  called,  in  history,  the  patriarchal 
government. 

VI. — (1.)  The  Bible  gives  an  account  of  patriarchal  authority, 
as  it  existed  in  the  family  of  our  first  parents.  (2.)  This  form  of 
authority  continued  through  the  families  of  Noah,  and  later  still, 
through  the  households  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob. 

VII. — (1.)  Such  authority  was  the  first  kind  of  human  regulation 
recognized  by  man  in  his  infant  state.  (2.)  It  was  founded  upon 
affection  and  reverence  for  the  head  of  the  family. 

VIII. — (1.)  At  this  period  of  history  the  term  of  mortal  life  was 
a  long  one.  (2.)  The  authority  of  a  patriarch  was  extended  over 
several  generations  of  his  descendants. 

IX. — (1.)  Children,  as  they  grew  up,  were  taught  their  relations 
toward  the  head  of  the  family.  (2.)  They  learned  to  heed  hia 
counsels  and  submit  to  his  authority. 

X. — (1.)  The  patriarchal  regulation  was  a  very  necessary  and 
natural  one  in  the  household.  (2.)  This  was  because  the  heart;  or 
affections,  are  impressed  during  a  nation's  infancy.  (3.)  The  child- 
ren revered  the  father,  and  trusted  in  his  superior  knowledge  and 
prior  experience.  (4.)  The  father  ruled  the  children  through  love 
and  respect  which  they  bore  to  him. 

v. —  (1.)  What  was  the  effect  of  this  relation  ?  (2.)  What  was  the  position 
of  the  first-born  ?     (3.)    What  did  his  authority  constitute? 

VI. — (1.)  What  book  gives  an  account  concerning  patriarchal  authority? 
2.)   What  is  said  of  this  form  ? 

VIL— (1.)  What  was  this  authority  ?     (2.)  On  what  was  it  founded? 

VIIL  — (1.)  What  is  said  of  mortal  life  at  this  period?  (2.)  How  did  this 
influence  the  patriarchal  au  hority  ? 

IX.— (1.)  What  were  children  taught?     (2.)  What  did  they  learn? 

X. — (1.)  What  is  said  regarding  the  patriarchal  regulation?  (2.)  Why  was 
this?  (3.)  How  did  children  regard  the  lather?  (4.)  How  did  the  father 
rule  the  children  ? 


The  Patriarchal  System.  27 

XI. — (1.)  A  patriarch  occupied  the  first  place  at  all  times;.for  him 
the  children  gathered  fruits  and  flowers,  and  to  him  the  youths  ap- 
plied for  counsel.  (2^)  The  wife,  or  partner,  shared  his  love,  and 
looked  up  to  him  with  affectionate  confidence.  \ 

XII. — (l.j  The  Patriarchal  System  is  noticed  in  all  the  earliest 
records  of  our  race.  (2.)  It  is  practised,  with  slight  modifications, 
at  the  present  time,  in  many  parts  of  the  earth.  (3.)  Rude  com- 
munities, not  yet  expanded  into  the  relations  of  organized  govern- 
ment, usually  dwell  under  a  patriarch. 

XIII. — (1.)  In  portions  of  Asia  and  Africa,  numerous  communi- 
ties or  families  are  regulated  by  patriarchal  systems.  (2.)  House- 
holds and  clans  of  Arabian  and  Tartar  races  are  each  governed 
by  a  central  Sheikh  or  Father.  (3.)  Their  mode  of  government  is 
the  same  as  was  practised  in  the  earliest  times  under  Abraham. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  word  Patriarch  signifies  Father.  (2.)  It  de- 
notes the  relationship  of  head,  or-  chief,  of  a  family.  (3.)  The 
Greek  word  from  which  it  is  derived,  wa;;  Patriarches  (Trarpiapx'rjc) . 
(4.)  This  signifies  head,  or  principal,  of  the  pntria  (Trarpia),  or  fam- 
ily. (5.)  It  was  formed  of  two  Greek  words,  pater  (naTep),  father, 
and  arc/ios  (apxog),  a  chief.  (6.)i_In  later  times,  the  title  patridus, 
the  Latin  word  for  father,  was  bestowed  on  nobles  and  senators  in 
Rome.     (7.)  The  Roman  higher  class  was  called  the  patrician  class. 


/V 


XI. — (1.)  What  distinctions  did  the  patriarch  enjoy?  (2.)  What  rehitiou 
did  his  wife  or  partner  bear  to  the  patriarch? 

Xn — (1.)  Where  is  the  Patriarclial  System  noticed?  (2.)  Does  it  still  con- 
tinue?    (3.)  What  .sort  of  communities  are  usually  under  a  patriarch? 

Xin. — (1.)  Where  do  numerous  communities  of  this  kind  now  exist? 
(2.)  What  is  said  of  Arabian  and  Tartar  races?  (8.)  What  of  their  mode  of 
government? 

XrV.— (1.)  What  docs  the  word  patriarch  signify  ?  (2)  What  does  it  denote  1 
(3.)  From  what  is  the  term  derived?  (4.)  What  does  that  signify?  (5.)  Uow 
was  the  Greek  word  formed?  (6.)  What  is  said  about  the  word  patrlciiig  f 
(7.)  What  wag  the  patric'  in  class  of  Rome  ? 


CHAPTER  V. 

EMIGRATION    FROM   THE    FAMILY. 

I. — (1.)  The  patriarchal  system  was  dependent  upon  bonds 
of  kindred  and  domestic  relations.  (2.)  Its  sphere  was  the  house- 
hold, or  united  family.  (3.)  It  was  influential  in  proportion  to  the 
respect  that  all  the  members  of  a  domestic  community  accorded  to 
the  chief  father. 

II. — (1.)  As  time  passed  and  families  multiplied,  the  central 
control  began  to  lose  force.  (2.)  The  patriarch  increased  in  years, 
and  his  age  caused  a  loss  of  bodily  and  mental  vigor.  (3.)  Younger 
m.embers  of  the  family  expanded  in  capacity  and  knowledge. 
(4.)  New  wants  and  separate  interests  grew  up  by  degrees. 

III. — (1.)  The  superiority  claimed  by  descendants  of  the  first- 
born son,  began  to  create  discontent.  (2.)  Those  who  were  de- 
scended from  the  second,  third,  and  other  sons  of  the  first  father, 
grew  dissatisfied.  (3.)  This  caused  rivalry  between  various  lines  or 
branches  of  descent.  (4.)  As  the  right  of  ownership  in  property 
became  defined,  the  various  branches  began  to  compete  with  each 
other  in  accumulating  goods. 

IV. — (1.)  The  effect  of  such  rivalry  was  to  make  a  separation 
of  household  interests.  (2.)  It  led  to  the  occupation,  by  different 
branches,  of  separate  fields  and  dwelling-places.  (3.)  One  brother 
and  his  descendants  lived  apart  from  another  brother  and  his  descend- 
ants. 

I. —  (1.)  On  what  was  the  patriarchal  system  dependent?  (2.)  What  was  its 
sphere?     (3.)  How  was  it  influential? 

n. — (1.)  What  took  place  as  time  passed  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  the  patri- 
\rch  ?  (3.)  What  concerning  other  members  of  the  family?  (4.)  What 
grew  np  by  degrees? 

m.— (1.)  What  created  discontent?  (2.)  Who  grew  dissatisfied?  (3.)  What 
did  this  cause  ?     (4.)   What  then  occurred? 

rv.— (1.)  What  effect  had  such  rivalry?  (2.)  To  what  did  it  lead?  (3.)  What 
was  the  result? 
28 


Emigration  from  the  Family.  29 

v.— (1.)  It  soon  came  to  pass  that  one  of  the  branches  grew 
tired  of  patriarchal  authority  and  desired  to  separate  altogether 
from  the  rest.  (2.)  The  head  of  such  a  branch  then  collected  his 
wealth,  consisting  of  arms,  clothing,  and  simple  implements  of  in- 
dustry. (3.)  He  gathered  his  wife,  children,  and  dependents,  to 
journey  with  him  from  the  place  where  they  dwelt.  (4.)  He  bade 
farewell  to  his  brethren  an"d'tlTe-patriarch,-and  set  forth  with  his 
followers,  to  wander  in  search  of  some  other  plain  or  valley.  (5.)  He 
sought  to  be  independent  of  control,  and  to  find  better  fields  or 
more  abundant  game. 

VI. (1.)  This  was  the  first  emigration,  or  passage  from   one 

locality  of  dwelling  to  another  that  promised  superior  benefits. 
(2.)  Experience  had  satisfied  man  that  the  patriarchal  system  was 
not  suited  to  his  wants.  (3.)  He  wandered  away,  to  better  his  con- 
dition. 

VII. — (1.)  The  first  emigrants  abandoned  the  general  family,  to 
seek  their  fortune  in  untried  wild<.  (2.)  They  unconsciously 
became  the  pioneers  of  national  life.  (3.)  Their  progress  was  to 
be  the  measure  of  mankind's  march  toward  future  civilization. 

VIII. — (1.)  Emigration  usually  results  from  a  desire  to  escape 
restrictions,  hardships,  or  privations.  (2.)  Human  beings  change 
their  homes,  to  find  other  localities  where  human  wishes  may  be 
satisfied  and  human  conditious  bettered. 

IX. — (1.)  Just  such  human  desires  and  efforts  influenced  the  first 
wanderers  from  a  household.     (2.)  They  sought  out  other  dwelling- 


V. — (1.)  What  soon  came  to  pass?  (2.)  How  did  the  head  of  such  a  branch 
proceed?  (3.)  What  else  did  he  do?  (4.)  To  what  did  he  bid  farewell? 
(5.)  What  did  he  seek? 

VI. — (1.)  What  was  this  movement?  (2.)  What  had  experience  done? 
(3.)  What  was  the  object  of  man's  wandering. 

Vn.— (1.)  What  did  the  first  emigrants  do?  (2.)  What  did  they  uncon- 
sciously  become?     (3.)  What  was  their  progress  to  be? 

VIII. — (1.)  From  what  does  emigration  result?  (2.")  Why  do  humau 
beiugs  change  tlu'ir  homes? 

IX. — (1.)  What  influenced  the  first  wanderers  ?     (2.)  What  did  they  seeii 


^O  History  of  Governments. 

places,  in  order  to  form  communities.  (3.)  Similar  motives  impel 
savage  tribes  and  families  at  tbe  present  day,  in  some  parts  of  the 
earth.  (4.)  Thev  pass  their  original  limits,  and  locate  in  other 
territories,  and  sometimes  among  other  peoples. 

X.— (1.)  The  first  emigrants  wandered  to  a  sheltered  valley,  by 
tlie  borders  of  a  river,  or  to  the  sea  shore.  (2.)  There  they  pitched 
tents  or  built  rude  huts.  (3.)  There  they  began  anew  the  system 
of  family  government,  or  else  combined  themselves  in  a  tribe  or  clan. 

XI. — (1.)  In  combining  as  a  tribe,  thie  community  became  known 
under  the  name  or  title  borne  by  its  leader  or  head.  (2.)  Such 
name  was  likewise  used  to  distinguish  the  district  or  area  of  country 
where  the  tribe  located  its  dwellings. 

XII. — (1.)  We  read  in  the  Bible  that  Canaan,  a  grandson  of 
Noah,  gave  his  name  to  his  followers  and  kindred  who  dwelt  with 
him.  (2.)  They  became  known  as  the  tribe  or  people  of  Canaan, 
and  were  called  Canaanites.  (3.)  The  territory  which  they  occu- 
pied, with  their  habitations,  was  known  as  the  land  of  Canaan  or 
the  land  of  the  Canaanites. 

(3.)  What  is  said  of  the  same  motives  now  ?     (4.)  What  do  these  tribes  do  ? 

X. — (1.)  Whither  did  the  first  emigrants  wander?  (2.)  What  did  they  do? 
(3.)   What  did  they  begin  ? 

XI. —  (1.)  How  did  the  comraunity  become  known?  (2.)  What  did  the 
name  also  distinguish  ? 

XEL— (1.)  What  do  we  read  iii  the  Bible?  (2.)  What  were  they  called? 
(?,)  How  W&9  their  territory  known  f 


CHAPTER  VT 

NOMADIC,     OR     WANDERING     LIFE. 

I. — (1.)  A  RUDE  family  of  men,  women,  and  children,  in  the  wil- 
derness, could  only  depend  upon  their  skill  and  courage  to  procure 
the  necessaries  of  life.  (2.)  They  travelled  from  one  forest  or  plain 
to  another,  seeking  good  hunting-grounds,  where  they  might  snare 
or  kill  game. 

II. — (1.)  This  wandering  kind  of  existence  was  called  by  the 
Greeks  nomadic  life.  (2.)  Nomadic  comes  from  a  Greek  word 
nomadikos  (vouadtKog).  (3.)  It  signifies  waitdering  or  living  by 
grazing.  (4.)  Most  of  the  early  nomads  travelled  with  asses  or 
camels,  and  stopped  at  places  where  grass  was  plenty. 

III. — (1.)  Some  tribes  were  destitute  of  beasts  of  burden. 
(2.)  These  depended  on  their  own  limbs  and  weapons  for  security 
and  subsistence.  (3.)  They  hunted  and  killed  wild  animals  to  ob- 
tain food  and  clotliing. 

IV. — (1.)  At  the  present  day,  there  are  tribes  that  wander, 
hunt,  and  fish,  just  as  there  were  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world. 
(2.)  Arabs  and  Tartars  generally  live  by  pasturing  flocks  in  the  wil- 
dernesses of  Asia.  (3.)  The  red  tribes  of  America  subsist  on  game 
and  fruits.  (4.)  Both  races  dwell  in  tents  or  huts,  and  move  from 
place  to  place  in  the  manner  of  ancient  tribes. 

I. — (1.)  On  what  could  a  wandering  family  depend?  (2.)  What  did 
its  members'  do  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  was  this  mode  of  existence  called  ?  (2.)  From  what  does  the 
word  "nomadic"  come?  (3.)  W^hat  does  this  word  signify?  (4.)  How  did 
most  early  nomads  travel  ? 

TTT— (1  )  What  is  said  of  some  tribes?  (2.)  On  what  did  these  depend?" 
(3.)  What  did  they  do? 

IV.— (1.)  What  are  there  at  the   present  day?     (2.)  How  do  Arabs  and 

Tartars  hve?     (3.)  How  do  the  red  American  tribes  subsist?     (4.)  In  what 

respects  do  these  races  resemble  each  other  ? 

81 


'.:^2  History  of  Governments. 

V. — (1.)  Jealousy  of  restraint  and  dislike  to  obey  fellow  indi- 
viduals, caused  the  first  emigrants  to  prefer  a  wandering  life. 
(2.)  In  a  wilderness  they  could  select  their  own  abodes  and  hunting- 
fields,  and  be  independent  of  other  men.  (3.)  Freedom  of  choice 
and  desire  of  change  became  constant  motives  of  action. 

VI. — (1.)  The  property  possessed  by  each  individual,  in  a  tribe 
that  wandered  in  search  of  game,  was  of  little  value.  (2.)  It  was 
usually  confined  to  clothing,  arms,  and  other  necessaries.  (3.)  No 
individual  could  boast  of  superiority  on  account  of  what  he  owned. 
(4.)  He  could  only  claim  to  be  stronger,  braver,  or  more  skillful 
than  another.  (5.)  The  property  most  valued  by  the  tribe  was  a 
good  hunting-ground,  where  all  could  find  game. 

VII. — (1.)  When  a  hunting  community  became  at  variance  with 
another  tribe,  the  cause  of  quarrel  was  generally  a  dispute  concern- 
ing the  possession  of  some  hunting-ground.  (2.)  Sometimes  the 
difficulty  arose  from  a  grievance  inflicted  by  an  individual  of  one 
tribe  on  an  individual  of  another. 

VIII. — (1.)  In  a  war  between  two  hunting  tribes,  each  sought 
to  kill  as  many  individuals  as  possible.  (2.)  If  prisoners  were  taken 
they  were  either  tortured  to  death  or  adopted  as  members  of  the 
tribe  capturing  them.  (3.)  Captives  were  seldom  or  never  made  to 
serve  as  slaves. 

IX. — (1.)  Slaves  were  of  no  use  among  a  tribe  of  hunters,  be- 
cause there  was  no  labor  for  them  to  perform.  (2.)  The  males  of 
such  a  tribe  killed  their  own  game,  and  their  food  and  clothing 


V. — (1).  What  caused  the  first  emigrants  to  prefer  a  wandering  life? 
(2.)  What  advantage  had  they  in  a  wilderness  ?  (3.)  What  were  their  motives 
of  action  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  property  in  a  hunting  tribe?  (2.)  To 
what  articles  was  it  usually  confined?  (3.)  Of  what  could  no  individual 
boast?   (4.)  What  alone  could  he  claim?   (5.)  What  property  was  most  valued  ? 

VII. —  (1.)  What  was  generally  a  cause  of  quarrel  between  hunting  tribes? 
(2.)  What  other  cause  sometimes  occurred? 

Vin. — (1.)  What  was  sought  in  the  warfare  of  such  tribes  ?  (2.)  What 
was  done  with  pr'soners  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  captives? 

IX. — (1.)  Whj  were  slaves  not  made  by  a  hunting  tribe?     (2.)  What  is 


Nomadic,  or  Wandering  Life.  33 

were  prepared  by  the  females.  (3.)  Slaves  could  not  be  profitable 
to  a  community  that  existed  only  by  the  chase. 

X. (1.^   When  a  wandering  tribe  became  stationary  in  some 

district  of  country,  the  condition  of  nomadism  was  changed  to  that 
of  settlement,  or  village  life.  (2.)  Settlement  consisted  in  establish- 
ing a  locality,  or  permanent  dwelling-place,  and  there  making  habi- 
tations for  all  the  families  of  the  tribe, 

XI. — (1.)  Settlement  was  the  beginning  of  social  and  political 
growth.  (2.)  A  settled  or  located  tribe  was  a  nation  in  its  infancy, 
(3.)  Here  commenced  the  regular  tillage  of  ground,  and  the  culti- 
vation of  corn  and  fruits.  (4.)  Here  man  ceased  to  depend 
altogether  upon  the  chase  for  his  livelihood.  (5.)  He  looked  to 
seed-time  and  harvest  as  means  of  supplying  his  wants. 

XII. — (1.)  We  must  trace  the  progress  of  such  a  settled 
community  through  changing  forms  of  growth,  organization,  and 
regulation,  (2.)  By  this  means  we  may  understand  what  is  meant 
by  government.  (3.)  We  shall  learn  in  what  respects  one  kind 
of  government  may  differ  from  another. 

XIII. — (1.)  We  recollect,  in  this  connection,  that  every  commun- 
ity, or  body-politic,  is  like  a  single  human  being.  (2.)  It  is  subject 
to  injury  and  disease,  as  well  as  to  laws  of  health  and  growth. 
(3.)  We  shall  find  that  each  community  has  suffered  or  enjoyed,  ac- 
cording as  it  departed  from,  or  adhered  to,  the  rules  of  health  and 
prudence.  (4.)  It  has  possessed  real  power  in  proportion  as  its 
members  were  individually  free  and  useful,  (5.)  It  has  decayed  and 
perished,  because  its  citizens  were  personally  neglected  or  abused. 

said  regarding  such  a  tribe?     (3.)  What  is  said  about  the  profit  of  slaves? 

X. — (1.)  What  took  place  when  a  tribe  became  stationary?  (2.)  In  what 
did  settlement  consist  ? 

XI. — (1.)  Of  what  was  settlement  the  beginning?  (2.)  What  was  a  settled 
tribe?  (3.)  What  here  commenced?  (4.)  What  did  man  here  cease  to 
depend  upon?     (5.)  To  what  did  he  look? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  must  we  now  do?  (2.)  What  shall  we  understand  by  this 
means  ?     (3.)  What  e-se  shall  we  learn  ? 

Xin.— (1.)  What  do  we  recollect?  (2.)  To  what  is  it  subject?  (3.)  What 
shall  we  find?    (4.)  How  has  a  community  possessed  real  power  ?    (5.)  Why 

bas  it  decayed  and  perished? 

2* 


CHxiPTER  VII. 

SETTLED   TRIBE-LIFE. 

I. — (1.)  In  the  earliest  settled  life  of  a  tribe  it  enjoyed  robust 
health  and  rude  iudepeudence.  (2.)  Individuals  were  combined  only 
through  kindred  and  friendship.  (3.)  Each  savage  individual  went 
hither  or  thither  as  he  liked.  (4.)  He  was  responsible  for  his 
actions  only  to  himself. 

II. — (1.)  In  the  beginning  of  tribe-life,  property  consisted  of  the 
individual's  cabin,  or  tent,  his  arms,  net,  and  clothing.  (2.)  To 
these  were  added,  rude  house  implements  and  ornaments  for  his  wife 
and  children. 

III. — (1.)  The  male  members  of  the  tribe  went  in  companies  to 
hunt  or  fish.  (2.)  All  provision  obtained  was  either  consumed 
immediately,  or  kept  in  a  common  store  for  future  use. 

IV.— (1.)  This  combination  of  individuals  was  the  simplest 
form  of  tribe-life.  (2.)  Individuals  did  not  collect  personal  wealth, 
or  property,  in  the  form  of  cattle  and  land.  (3.)  The  desire  to 
accumulate  did  cot  cause  rivalry  between  different  individuals. 

V. (1.)  The  community  depended  for  subsistence  upon  tilling 

the  soil  more  than  upon  hunting  and  fishing.     (2.)  A  division  of 
responsibility  here  took  place.     (3.)  The  men  went  out  in  com- 


L (1.)  What  did  a  tribe  enjoy  in  its  earliest  settled  life  ?     (2.)  How  were 

individuals  combined?  (3.)  What  did  each  savage  do?  (4.)  To  whom  was 
;«  responsible  ? 

n.— (1.)  Of  what  did  property  consist?     (2.)  What  were  added? 

m.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  male  members  of  a  tribe  ?  (2.)  What  was 
done  with  provision  ? 

IV. (1.)  What  was  this  combination  ?     (2.)  What  is  said  about  property  ? 

(3.)  What  was  the  effect  of  this  ? 

v.— (1.)  On  what  did  the  community  mostly  depend  for  subsistence?  (2.) 
What  took  place?  (3.)  What  did  the  men  of  such  a  community  do* 
84 


Settled  Tribe-life.  35 

panics  to  hunt  or  fight.     (4.)  The  women  prepared  grouud  for  seed 
and  gathered  iu  the  harvest. 

VI. — (1.)  When  the  products  of  the  chase  and  of  the  soil  were 
collected,  they  were  placed  in  store  for  future  use.  (2.)  At  stated 
seasons  shares  were  distributed  among  all  the  different  families  of 
the  community. 

VII. — (1.)  We  find  this  form  of  tribe-life  among  savages  of 
North  and  South  America  at  the  present  day.  (2.)  They  dwell  in 
villages  of  huts,  or  tents,  cultivate  the  soil,  and  hunt  wild  animals 
for  food. 

VIII. — (1.)  In  earliest  tribe-life,  all  idea  of  ownership  in  property 
was  confined  to  the  bow  and  spear,  clothing  or  armor  of  skins,  and 
the  hut  or  tent  used  for  habitation.  (2.)  These  articles  of  property 
were  distinguished  by  some  mark  chosen  by  the  owner.  (3.)  This 
mark  might  be  the  figure  of  a  turtle,  a  snake,  a  tree,  a  bird,  fish, 
or  beast.  (4.)  By  its  use,  on  his  clothing  or  person,  one  savag'^ 
became  known  from  another. 

IX. — (1.)  The  dwelling  of  every  savage  was  left  in  charge  ot 
the  women.  (2.)  The  women  had  care  of  children  and  domestic 
animals.  (3.)  Every  man,  in  his  own  dwelling,  was  sovereign,  and 
independent  of  all  other  men.  (4.)  Each  savage  exercised  undis- 
puted authority  over  his  own  family  and  dependents. 

X. — (1.)  All  females  occupied  inferior  or  subject  positions.  (2.) 
They  performed  the  hand-labor  and  domestic  service.     (3.)  They 

(4.)  How  did  the  women  of  such  a  community  occupy  themselves  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  was  done  with  products  of  the  chase   and  the  soil?     (2 
How  were  they  afterward  disposed  ? 

VII. — (1.)  What  do  we  discover  at  the  present  day?  (2.)  Wliat  is  their 
mode  of  life  ? 

VIII.  — (1.)  To  what  was  all  idea  of  property  confined?  (2.)  How  were 
these  articles  distinguished?  (3.)  What  uiight  this  mark  be?  (4.)  Of  what 
importance  was  such  a  mark  ? 

IX. — (I.)  Who  had  charge  of  every  dwelling?  (2.)  Who  took  care  of  chil- 
dren and  animals  ?  (.3.)  What  was  every  savage  in  his  own  dwelling  ?  (4.) 
What  did  each  exercise  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  position  did  females  occupy  ?  (2.)  What  did  they  perform  * 
(.8.)  What  else  ie  said   concerning  the  labor  of  females,  and  their  conditiORf 


36  History  of  Govtrnments. 

cultivated  the  ground,  prepared  food,  and  were  the  slaves  cf  their 
male  superiors.  (4.)  Their  condition  was  rendered  easier  by  the 
relations  which  they  held  as  wives,  mothers,  sisters,  and  daughters. 

XI. — (1.)  The  combination  of  a  tribe,  in  this  manner,  secured 
almost  entire  independence  to  every  individual.  (2.)  The  right 
of  each  man  to  personal  life  and  liberty  was  recognized.  (3.) 
Every  savage  pursued  his  own  happiness  in  the  manner  he  deemed 
best. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 

NATURAL    EQUALITY. 


I. — (1.)  Permanent  inferiority  of  one  man  to  another  was  not 
known  in  earliest  tribe-life.  (2.)  Rank  or  grade  was  not  claimed 
except  as  it  arose  naturally  from  an  individual's  strength  or  talent. 

II. — (1.)  The  most  skillful  hunter  was  a  leader  of  the  chase. 
(2.)  The  most  valorous  warrior  was  chief  of  a  hostile  expedition 
against  a  rival  tribe.  (3.)  When  hunting  was  over,  or  war  ended, 
a  leader  or  chief  went  back  to  his  place  among  the  rest. 

III. — (1.)  A  savage  community,  existing  in  this  form  of  siraplcj 
independence  and  equality,  was  a  healthy  state.  (2.)  Independence 
and  equality  are  natural  elements  of  human  society.     (3.)  Natural 


(4.)  By  what  relations  was  the  condition  of  females  rendered  easier  ? 

XI. — (1.)  What  did  such  a  combination  as  this  secure?  (2.)  What  was 
recognized?     (3.)  What  did  every  savage  do? 

I. — (1.)  What  was  not  known  in  earliest  tribe-life?  (2.)  What  was  not 
claimed  ? 

n. — (1.)  Who  was  a  leader  of  the  chase?  (2.)  Who  was  chief  in  a  war 
party?     (3.)  What  became  of  him  afterward  ? 

m. — (1.)  What  was  a  savage  community  in  this  form  ?  (2.)  What  are 
natural  elements  of  human  society  ?    (3.)  On  what  is  natural  independence 


Natural  Equality.  37 

independence  is  founded  on  an  individual's  consciousness  of  man- 
hood. (4.)  Natural  equality  is  asserted  by  the  natural  dislike  of 
one  human  being  to  be  controlled  by  another  human  being. 

IV. — (1.)  Every  individual  in  simple  tribe-life  was  equal  to 
another.  (2.)  No  person  claimed  or  exercised  more  authority  than 
the  whole  community,  or  the  people,  might  be  willing  to  al!ow  him. 

■y. — (1.)  In  such  a  simple  tribe  we  find  the  earliest  form  of 
popular  government  or  sovereignty  of  the  peo})le.  (2.)  All 
authority,  wielded  at  certain  times  by  a  leader,  was  simply  an 
authority  allowed  by  consent  of  the  whole  tribe. 

VI. — (1.)  When  a  tribe  deliberated,  individuals  came  together 
as  individuals.  (2.)  Speech  or  action  was  more  or  less  independent, 
according  to  the  personal  character  of  a  speaker  or  actor. 

VII. — (1.)  AH  the  savages  seated  themselves  on  the  ground, 
And  entered  into  discussion  according  to  ability.  (2.)  Wisdom, 
experience,  eloquence,  craft,  or  boldness,  were  thus  developed. 
(3.)  The  influence  of  each  man  was  ^measured  by  the  power  or 
attraction  of  his  personal  character. 

VIII. — (1.)  This  popular  combination,  in  a  rude,  savage  tribe, 
was  its  mode  of  government.  (2.)  Independence  of  each  men.ber, 
and  equality  of  one  with  another,  were  the  features  of  such  a  govern- 
ment. (3.)  The  authority  or  power  of  the  whole  tribe,  or  people, 
was  exercised  by  all  together,  or  through  persons  selected  by  all. 

IX. — (1.)  A  popular   combination    of  this   kind   is   known    a" 

founded  ?     (4.)  In  what  manner  is  natural  equality  said  to  be  asserted  ? 

IV.— (1.)  What  was  every  individual  in  simple  tribe  life?  (2.)  What  was 
the  limit  of  personal  authority  ? 

v.— (1.)  What  do  we  find  in  such  a  tribe?  (2.)  What  was  the  character  of 
all  individual  authority  ? 

VI.— (1.)  How  did  the  tribe  meet  to  deliberate?  (2.)  What  was  the  charac- 
ter of  speech  or  action? 

VII.— (1.)  What  did  all  the  savages  do?  (2.)  What  were  thus  developed? 
(3.)  How  was  each  man's  influence  measured? 

VIII.— (1.)  What  was  the  popular  combination  in  a  tribe  ?  (3.)  What  were 
its  features  ?     (3.)  IIow  was  autliority  exercised  ? 

DC. — (1.)  By  what  distinguishing  name  is  such  a  popular  combination  known  ' 


38  History  of  Governments. 

democracy.  (2.)  Democracy  means  the  people's  power,  or  popular 
sovereignty.  (3.)  The  word  "democracy"  is  derived  from  two 
Greek  words,  (demos)  drjfiog  i.  e.  "  the  people,"  and  kratos  (KQarog), 
power,  or  krateo  (aparew),  to  govern.  (4.)  They  signify,  t\iQ  power 
or  authority  of  the  people. 


CHAPTER   IX. 


EARLY    DEMOCRACY. 


I. — (1.)  Simple  democracy  could  be  made  practical  only  in  a 
small  tribe,  or  community.  (2.)  Its  foundation  was  an  agreement 
or  consent  of  all  the  people  to  any  course  of  ection. 

II. — (1.)  It  was  not  necessary  that  every  individual  member  of 
the  tribe  should  express  his  consent.  (2.)  The  will,  or  voice  of  the 
larger  number,  or  majority,  and  the  consent  or  submission  of  the 
smaller  number,  or  minority,  was  an  agreement  of  the  whole  jjeople. 

III. — (1.)  The  democratic  principle  rested  on  a  sovereignty  of 
numbers,  or  majorities.  (2.)  It  provided  that  a  few  should  yield 
or  agree  to  the  expressed  desire  of  many.  (3.)  It  allowed  every 
individual  to  be  heard,  for  or  against  any  measure  or  purpose, 
before  it  was  decided. 

IV. — (1.)  In  a  council,  or  public  meeting,  every  male  member 
of  a  savage  democracy  claimed  the  right  to  take  part.     (2.)   His 

(2.)  What  is  meant  by  Democracy?  (3.)  How  is  the  word  derived? 
(4.)  What  do  these  words  signify  ? 

I. — (1.)  Where  was  simple  democracy  practical  ?  (2.')  What  was  its 
foundation  ? 

n.— (1.)  What  was  not  necessary?  (2.)  What  constituted  a  democratic 
agreement  ? 

m. —  (1.)  On  what  did  the  democratic  principle  rest?  (2.)  What  did  it 
provide  ?     (3.)  What  did  it  allow  ? 

rV. — (1.)  What  did  every  male  savage  claim  ?  (2.)  What  was  his  in- 
fluence ' 


Early  Democracy.  39 

voice,  or  opinion,  possessed  influence  just  in  pfoportion  to  his  per- 
sonal ability,  or  his  popularity  with  others. 

v. — (1.)  Each  individual  savage  submitted  to  the  expressed  will 
of  the  greatest  number.  (2.)  This  principle  governs  every  democratic 
body,  whether  it  meet  in  a  savage  village,  or  in  a  civilized  city. 

VI. — (1.)  The  origin  of  all  assemblies  of  the  people,  as  they  now 
exist  iu  communities,  may  be  traced  to  savage  tribe-life.  (2.)  All 
the  warriors  and  hunters  associated  in  council.  (3.)  They  con- 
stituted, when  together,  a  popular,  law-making  body.  (4.)  The 
old  men  of  the  tribe  formed  a  smaller  body.  (5.)  They  represented 
the  reflection  and  prudence  of  the  whole  community.  (6.)  They 
were  called  the  Elders,  or  wise  "men,  and  exercised  influence  by 
reason  of  their  experience. 

VII. — (1.)  The  meeting  of  all  the  male  members  of  the  rude 
community  was  the  basis  of  democracy,  or  popular  rule.  (2.)  The 
more  limited  council  of  elders  gave  advice  when  necessary. 

VIII. — (1.)  Out  of  the  two  bodies  a  number  of  old  men  were 
selected,  as  agents.  (2.)  These  agents  carried  measures  into 
action,  when  agreed  upon.  (3.)  The  persons  selected  became  tem- 
porary magistrates,  or  leaders.  (4.)  They  performed  only  what 
was  directed  by  the  whole  tribe.  (5.)  They  administered  the 
authority  of  the  tribe.  (6.)  They  constituted  the  first  delegated 
government,  or  executive  power. 

IX. — (1.)  All  popular  governments  resemble  this  simple  organiza- 

V. — (1.)  How  did  each  iadividual  act?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  this  principl 
of  submission? 

VI. — (1.)  What  is  said  about  assemblies  of  tiie  people?  (2.)  What  did  all 
the  warriors  and  hunters  do?  (3.)  What  did  they  constitute  when  together? 
(4.)  What  did  the  old  men  form?  (5.)  What  did  they  represent?  (6.)  What 
were  they  called  ? 

VII. — (1.)  What  was  the  basis  of  democracy?  (2.)  What  was  the  council 
of  Elders  ? 

Vni — (1.)  What  were  selected?  (2.)  What  did  these  agents  do? 
(3.)  What  were  they  ?  (4  )  What  did  they  perform  ?  (5.)  What  did  they 
administer  ?     (6.)  What  did  they  constitute  ? 

IX.— (1.)  What  is  here  remarked  concerning   all   popular    governitenta  ? 


40  History  of  Governments. 

tion  of  a  savage,  democratic  tribe.  (2.)  The  Roman  popular  meet* 
ings,  or  assemblies  of  the  people,  decided  all  measures  of  importance. 
(3.)  They  elected  delegates  or  agents  to  administer  their  will. 
(4.)  The  Roman  Senate  was  a  body  of  elder  citizens,  selected  on 
account  of  superior  judgment,  virtue,  and  experience.  (5.)  This 
body  prepared  regulations,  and  suggested  measures,  which  the 
people  adopted  in  their  Assembly.  (6.)  The  Roman  tribunes,  or 
consuls,  were  agents  chosen  to  administer  law  and  preserve  order  in 
the  state. 

X. — (1.)  The  earliest  history  of  savage  tribes  shows  that  com- 
bined human  individuals  naturally  establish  popular  or  democratic 
bodies,  to  make  and  carry  out  their  own  regulations.  (2)  This 
indicates  the  natural  and  best  form  of  government  in  larger  states 
and  nations. 


CHAPTER  X. 

PARTIES    IX    A   DEMOCRACY. 

I. — (1.)  We  perceive  that  in  early  tribe-life  each  individual  held 
himself  the  equal  of  another.  (2.)  We  also  see  that  all  met  in 
council,  for  exchange  of  independent  opinions. 

II. — (1.)  When  a  tribe  met  to  deliberate  in  the  council,  its  mem- 
bers learned  to  understand  one  anothei-'s  wishes  and  opinions. 
(2.)  When  they  afterward  mingled  in  war  or  hunting,  the  bonds 
of  intimacy  between  individuals  and  families  grew  stronger. 

(2.)  What  did  the  Roman  assemblies  decide?  (3.)  What  did  they  elect? 
(4.)  What  was  the  Roman  Senate?  (5.)  What  did  the  Senate  do?  (6  )  Who 
were  the  Roman  Tribunes,  and  what  were  their  duties? 

X.— (1.)  What  is  shown  by  the  earliest  history  of  tribes?  (2.)  What  does 
this  indicate  ? 

I. — (1.)   What  do  we  see  in  early  tribe-life  ?     (2.)  What  else  do  we  see? 

n. — (1.)  What  did  men  learn  in  council?  (2.)  What  afterward  took 
place  ? 


Parties  in  a  Democracy.  41 

III._(1,)  A  feeling  of  friendship  between  man  and  man  was 
fostered.  (2.)  They  associated  in  danger  and  hardship,  and  expe- 
rienced grief  or  joy  in  companionship.  (3.)  They  learned  to  know 
and  esteem  each  other  in  greater  or  less  degrees. 

IV. — (1.)  In  rude  communities,  this  feeling  of  friendship  was 
greatly  stimulated.  (2.)  The  brotherly  intimacy  of  two  or  more 
individuals  furnishes  many  interesting  episodes  of  history.  (3.)  The 
friendship  that  existed  between  Jonathan  and  David  is  recorded  in 
the  Bible.  (4.)  This  was  no  uncommon  kind  of  association  in  early 
times.  (5.)  We  read  that  pairs  of  GalUc  youths  bound  their  left 
wrists  together  with  a  chain,  so  that  in  battle,  or  even  death,  they 
might  not  be  separated. 

V".— (1.)  A  sentiment  of  friendship  marked  the  intercourse, 
more  or  less,  of  all  members  of  a  savage  tribe.  (2.)  They  were 
accustomed  to  regard  each  other,  and  their  own  community,  as 
superior  to  all  stranger  iudividuals  or  tribes. 

VI. — (1.)  This  feeling  of  exclusive  regard  extended  to  the 
locality  where  a  tribe  dwelt.  (2.)  The  people  learned  to  love  their 
habitations,  fields  and  hunting-grounds.  (3.)  Here  was  founded  the 
sentiment  of  patriotism.  (4.)  Patriotism  means  the  affection  that  a 
person  feels  for  his  native  country. 

VII. — (1.)  It  was  natural  that  certain  individuals  of  a  tribe 
should  possess  skill,  bravery,  generosity,  and  other  attractive  quali- 
ties,in  a  larger  share  than  others.  (2.)  Such  individuals  grew  to  be 
highly  esteemed  by  their  associates.  (3.)  They  gained  the  favor 
and  confidence  of  their  whole  tribe. 

ni. (1.)  What   was  fostered?    (2.)  What   did   they  do?    (3.)  What   dia 

they  learn  ? 

rv. — (1.)  Where  was  this  feeling  stimulated?  (2.)  What  is  said  about 
brotherly  intercourse  ?  (3.)  What  is  recorded  in  the  Bible?  (4.)  What  is 
said  respecting  this?     (5.)  What  do  we  read  concerning  Gallic  youths  ? 

v.— (1.)  What  was  a  feature  of  savage  tribes?  (2.)  To  what  were  their 
members  accustomed  ? 

VI. — (1.)  Where  did  this  feeling  extend?  (2  )  What  did  the  people  learn? 
(3.)  What  was  here  founded?     (4.)  What  does  patriotism  mean? 

Vn,— (1.)  What  was  natural  ?  (2.)  What  was  the  eflfect  of  this  ?  (3.)  What 
did  they  often  gain  ? 


42  History  of  Governments. 

VIII. — (1.)  When  the  council  of  a  tribe  decided  on  any  course 
of  action,  it  became  necessary  to  have  agents  to  carry  the  decision 
into  effect.  (2.)  The  favorites  of  a  tribe  were  selected  as  these 
agents.  (3.)  They  became,  for  a  time,  leaders  or  captains  of  the 
tribe,  to  conduct  any  necessary  action.  (4.)  They  were  assisted  by 
as  many  hunters  or  warriors  as  the  business  required. 

IX. — (1.)  If  a  warlike  expedition  ended  prosperously,  its  leaders 
become  greater  favorites  than  before.  (2.)  A  habit  of  conndencS 
in  their  abilities  and  respect  for  their  opinions  grew  up  among  their 
companions. 

X. — (1.)  Favorite  men  in  this  way  became  leaders  on  various 
occasions.  (2.)  They  could  always  count  on  devoted  adherents. 
(3.)  The  independence  of  individuals  was  endangered  through  the 
personal  respect  inspired  by  such  a  leader. 

XI. — (1.)  The  custom  of  deference  and  respect  to  a  favorite  led 
to,  a  habit  of  obedience.  (2.)  Some  were  ready  to  support  his 
authority  as  a  superior,  or  chief.  (3.)  But  a  meeting  of  the  people 
was  still  the  foundation  of  all  combined  power.  (4.)  A  leading 
savage  was  only  looked  upon  as  an  equal  among  equals,  in  assem- 
blies of  the  tribe. 

XII. — (1.)  A  single  man's  popularity  was  not  pleasing  to  all.  (2.) 
Otlier  able  and  ambitious  men  became  more  or  less  jealous  of  his 
influence  over  the  tribe.  (3.)  These  jealous  individuals  had  their  own 
admirers  and  adherents  among  members  of  the  body-politic. 
(4.)  One   demagogue,    or  popular  leader,   became   a  check  upon 

Vm. — (1.)  What  became  necessary?  (2.)  Who  were  chosen  as  agents? 
(3.)  What  did  they  become?     (4.)  How  were  they  assisted? 

IX.— {!.)  What  occurred  after  a  prosperous  expedition?  (2.)  What  grew 
up? 

X. — (1.)  What  did  favorites  become?  (2.)  On  what  could  they  always 
count?     (3.)  What  was  endangered? 

XI. — (1.)  To  what  did  the  custom  of  respect  lead?  (2.)  What  were  some 
ready  to  do?  (3.)  What  was  the  meeting  of  the  people?  (4.)  How  was  a 
leading  savage  looked  upon  ? 

XII. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  his  popularity?  (2.)  Who  were  jealous  of  his 
influence  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  these  other  men  ?     (4.)  How  did  they  operate  ? 


Parties  in  a  Democracy.  43 

another.     (5.)  The   followers   of  one   arrayed    themselves   in   the 
council  against  the  followers  of  another. 

XIII. — (1.)  This  was  the  origin  of  parties,  or  factions,  in  a  com- 
munity. (2.)  So  long  as  their  leaders  contended  only  for  the  pub- 
lic good,  no  ill  effects  followed.  (3.)  When  they  were  nearly  equal 
in  numbers,  the  power  of  one  was  a  balance  to  the  power  of 
another. 

-XIV. — (1.)  Free  individuals,  with  independent  judgment  and 
opinions,  always  take  sides  on  questions  of  policy.  (2.)  Every 
democratic  or  representative  organization  is  distinguished  by  parties 
in  opposition.  (3.)  Each  party  becomes  watchful  of  the  other. 
(4.)  They  help  to  maintain  the  balance  of  power  that  is  necessary 
to  public  security. 

XV. — (1.)  Whenever  one   party,  or   faction,    in   a  state,    first 
sought  to  establish  power  by  force,  it  became  dangerous.    (2.)  When 
it  succeeded  in  suppressing  the    independent  action  of  any  other 
party,  the  individuals  lost  their  freedom.     (3.)  The  state  fell  a  prey^ 
to  disease  in  the  shape  of  absolute  power  or  misrule. 

(5.)  What  did  the  followers  of  various  leaders  in  a  democracy  do  ? 

Xm. — (1.)  Of  what  was  this  the  origin?  (2.)  Were  these  parties  good  or 
bad?     (3.)  How  did  they  operate  when  nearly  equal  in  numbers  ? 

XrV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  free  individuals  ?  (2.)  How  are  democratic  organi- 
zations distinguished?  (3.)  What  does  each  party  become?  (4.)  How  do  they 
operate  ? 

XV. — (1.)  When  did  a  party  become  dangerous?  (2.)  When  did  the  indi* 
viinnln  1q«9  their  freedom ?    (3.)  To  vhat  did  the  state  fall  a  prey? 


:)HAPTER   XL 

A    OMMONWEALTH    OR    REPUBLIC. 

I. — (1.)  Every  individual  in  a  popular  or  democratic  tribe,  felfc 
an  interest  in  the  peril  or  welfare  of  every  other  individual  member. 
(2.)  A  sentiment  of  common  dependence  and  sympathy  was  recon- 
ciled with  personal  independence  and  freedom, 

II. — (1.)  A  savage  who  injured  another  was  held  responsible  by 
his  tribe  to  the  family  of  the  aggrieved  man.  (2.)  If  the  ofifence 
were  one  for  which  apology  or  amends  could  be  made,  the  whole 
tribe  tried  to  make  peace.  (3.)  When  compensation  or  punishment 
was  demanded,  the  entire  community  enforced  the  claim. 

III. — (1.)  The  matter  was  settled  without  written  laws,  and 
only  by  the  popular  expression  of  individual  judgment.  (2.)  A  savage 
body-politic  was  the  guardian  and  guaranty  of  all  its  members. 
(3.)  All  persons  were  bound  to  preserve  to  each  the  right  of  life, 
liberty  and  happiness. 

rV. — (1.)  The  interest  that  one  individual  shares  with  another 
in  any  community,  is  an  interest  in  the  commonwealth.  (2.)  The 
commonwealth  means  all  that  is  required  to  give  every  man  his 
natural  rights  as  a  member  of  the  community. 

V. — (1.)  A  commonwealth  is  otherwise  known  as  a  republic. 
(2.)  All  states  governed  more  or  less  by  the  people  themselves,  are 

I. — (1.)  What  did  every  individual  in  a  popular  tribe  feel?  (2.)  What  were 
reconciled  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  savage  who  injured  another?  (2.)  What  was 
then  done?     (.3.)  What  did  the  community  enforce? 

m. — (1.)  How  was  the  matter  settled?  (2.)  What  was  a  savage  body- 
politic  ?     (3  )  What  were  all  bound  to  do  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  mutual  interests?  (2.)  What  is  meant  by  the 
commonwealth  ? 

V. — (1.)  How  is  a  commonwealth  otherwise  known?    (2.)  What  are  com 
monwealths  or  republics?     (3.)  What  is  a  democratic  republic?    (4.)  What 
44 


Independence  of  a  State.  45 

commonwealths  or  republics.  (3.)  A  State  in  which  authority 
comes  directly  from  all  the  people,  is  a  democratic  commonwealth 
or  republic.  (4.)  Every  human  individual  is  naturally  a  democrat 
and  a  republican. 

VI. — (.1.)  As  an  individual,  he  is  jealous  of  any  assumption  o*" 
authority  on  the  part  of  another  individual.  (2.)  As  a  democrat,  he 
respects  any  power  that  is  based  upon  mutual  agreement  of  all  the 
people. 

VII. — (1.)  As  a  republican,  he  feels  an  interest  in  the  liberty 
and  prosperity  of  his  fellow-individuals.  (2.)  He  recognizes  the  com 
bined  body-politic  to  be  the  guaranty  of  his  own  personal  security 

VIII. — (1.)  The  term  republic  is  derived  from  a  Latin  word, 
respublica.  (2.)  It  means  common  or  general,  things  or  interests, 
i.  e.,  commonwealth.  (3.)  The  original  Greek  derivative  is  ta  koina 
{ra  Koiva),  signifying  things  or  affairs  of  a  community. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

INDEPENDENCE    OF    A    STATE. 

I. — (1.)  A  SAVAGE  democracy  was  an  independent  body-politic, 
sovereign  in  itself.  ''2.')  It  refused  allegiance  or  respect  to  any 
other  body-politic. 

II. — (1.)  It  was  liable  to  be  attacked  by  the  people  of  another 
tribe,  stronger  in  arms  or  numbers.  (2.)  It  might  thus  be  reduced 
to  enforced  dependence  or  servitude. 

is  every  human  individual  naturally  ? 

VI. — (1.)  How  does  man  act,  as  aa  individual?  (2.)  What  does  he  respect, 
as  a  democrat  ? 

Vn. — (1.)  How  does  he  feel,  as  a  republican  ?    (2.)  What  does  he  recognize  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  From  what  is  the  word  republic  derived?  (2.)  What  does  it 
mean  ?     (3.)  What  does  the  original  Greek  word  signify  ? 

I. — (1.)  What  was  a  savage  democracy  ?     (2.)  What  did  it  refuse  ? 

n. — (1.)  To  what  was  such  a  democracy  liable  ?  (2.)  What  might  liappen 
to  it? 


^6  History  of  Governments. 

III. —  ■  1.)  Muny  savage  communities  have  been  destroyed  in  this 
manner,  while  in  a  democratic  stage  of  progression.  (2.)  They 
perished  in  infancy,  as  a  human  individual  is  cut  off  when  a  child. 

IV. — (1.)  Other  bodies  politic  survived  and  continued  the  deve- 
lopment of  social  human  existence.  (2.)  In  following  the  progress 
of  a  single  community,  without  regard  to  other  combinations,  we 
trace  the  course  of  civil  society. 

V. — (l.J  We  see  the  sentiment  of  friendship  strengthened  in  a 
tribe  by  intimacy  of  association,  under  mutual  trials  and  experiences. 
(2.)  We  find  it  ripened  into  a  love  of  locality  and  birth-place, 
which  is  called  patriotism. 

VI. — (1.)  The  sentiments  of  friendship  and  patriotism  related  to 
fellow-members  of  the  tribe  and  to  the  community  itself.  (2.)  Op- 
posite feelings  were  encouraged  toward  other  men  and  communities. 

VII. — (1.)  A  feeling  of  dislike  or  suspicion  was  felt  toward 
individuals  not  belonging  to  the  tribe.  (2.)  A  contempt  of  the 
land  occupied  by  obnoxious  strangers  was  generally  encouraged. 

VIII. — (1.)  A  savage  individual  was  inspired  by  kindly  senti- 
ments in  his  intercourse  with  savages  of  his  own  tribe.  (2.)  He 
formed  ties  of  sympathy  with  them  that  could  only  be  broken  by 
death.  (3.)  On  the  other  hand,  he  distrusted  strangers  ;  he 
regarded  strange  individuals  and  tribes  as  natural  foes  of  himself 
and  race. 

IX. — (1.)  The  natural  jealousy  that  every  individual  felt,  regard- 
ing another's  authority,  protected  his  own  independence.     (2.)  His 

m. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  many  savage  communities?  (2.)  When  did  they 
perish  ? 

rV.^l.)  What  survived?    (2.)  How  shall  we  trace  the  progress  of  society? 

v.— (1.)  What  do  we  see  ?     (2.)  What  else  do  we  find? 

VI. — (1.)  To  what  did  the  sentiments  of  friendship  and  patriotism  relate? 
(2.)  What  is  said  of  opposite  feelings  ? 

Vn. — (1.)  What  was  felt  regarding  foreigners  ?  (2.)  What  other  sentimen 
was  encouraged  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  intercourse  of  savages  in  their  own  tribe? 
(2.)  What  ties  did  each  savage  fjrm  ?     (3.)  How  did  he  look  upon  strangers? 

IX. —  (1.)  How  was  the  independence  of  ar  individual  protected  within  hia 
own  tribe?     (2.)  How  was  his  liberty  secured  ? 


Independence  of  a  State.  47 

claim  to  be  aa  equal  of  any  other  man,  secured  bis  own  personal 
liberty. 

X. — (1.)  The  jealousy  that  one  tribe  felt  toward  another,  main- 
tained its  own  independence  as  a  tribe.  (2.)  The  pride  of  one 
tribe,  in  its  own  power  or  spirit,  was  a  safeguard  to  its  rude  freedom, 

XI. — (1.)  The  dislike  or  jealousy  entertained  by  one  savage 
tribe  toward  another  tribe,  caused  a  close  combination  of  all  the 
members  of  each  community.  (2.)  This  combination  insured  an 
independent  separation  of  one  tribe  from  another.  (3.)  By  this 
means  every  independent  community  grew  to  be  self-reliant  and  sov- 
ereign by  itself. 

XII. —  (1.)  When  war  arose,  all  the  members  of  a  tribe  com- 
bined, as  one  man,  to  resist  any  hostile  assault.  (2.)  Their  union  in 
this  way  gave  them  strength  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  a  larger 
power. 

XIII. — (1.)  War  was  often  the  means  of  uniting  the  members 
of  a  tribe  more  closely  in  defence  of  each  other.  (2.)  This  pre- 
vented the  destruction  or  dispersion  of  their  community.  (3.)  War 
also  caused  one  tribe  to  compete  with  another  in  gaining  strength, 
skill,  and  wealth. 

XIV.— (1.)  The  meeting  of  individuals  with  each  other,  in  the 
popular  councils  of  a  tribe,  was  the  means  of  strengthening  their 
acquaintanceship  and  social  relations.  (2.)  When  they  gathered: 
for  mutual  defence  against  foreign  force,  their  friendship  for  each 
other  became  enlarged  into  love  of  country. 


X. — (1.)  How  wag  the  independence  of  a  tribe  maintained?     (2.)  What  Li. 
said  of  the  pride  of  a  savage  tribe  ? 

XI — (1-)  What  did  the  dislil<e  or  jealousy  of  a  tribe  cause?     (2.)  What  did 
tlie  combination  insure?     (3.)  What  was  the  effect  ? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  effect  had  war  on  the  members  of  an  independent  tribe  ? 
(2. )  What  was  the  effect  of  this  union  ? 

Xin — (1-)  Of    what  was   war   the   means?     (2.)  What  did  this  prevent  ? 
(3.)  What  did  it  also  cause  ? 

XrV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  popular  meetinga  ?     (2.)  What  did  their  friend- 
ship  afterward  become  ? 


48  History  of  Governments. 

XV. — (1.)  The  existence  of  one  tribe  separate  from  anoiner, 
caused  trade  and  other  intercourse  between  them,  as  between  indi- 
viduals (2.)  The  separation  often  occasioned  events  that  distinguished 
one  community  from  another.  (3.)  These  events  were  remembered 
and  recorded  as  history. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  rivalship  of  separate  communities  produced 
the  same  result  as  the  competition  of  individuals.  (2.)  It  preserved 
the  independence  of  tribes,  and  occasioned  incidents,  to  be  recorded 
for  the  example  of  mankind. 

XVII. — (1.)  Individuals  of  a  tribe  were  to  learn  by  experience 
and  observation,  whatever  was  necessary  for  their  ultimate  welfare. 
(2.)  Communities,  or  nations,  were  to  profit  by  the  experience  and 
trials  of  other  distinct  communities,  as  recorded  in  history. 

XVIIL — (1.)  Diflferent  tribes  were  permitted  by  the  Creator  to 
grow  up  and  become  hostile  to  each  other.  (2.)  The  experiment 
of  each  one's  life  as  a  body-politic  was  thus  tried  independently, 
with  its  own  raea-aers. 

XIX. — (1.)  Diiferent  forms  of  government  were  allowed  to 
be  instituted.  (2.)  They  were  to  be  proved  good  or  bad  by  the 
experience  of  the  people  who  established  them. 

XX. — (1.)  The  record  of  all  governments  and  their  effects  upon 
public  affairs,  is  before  our  own  consideration,  as  students.   (2.)  W 
can  examine  them  through  the  light  of  history,  and  thus  learn  to 
appreciate  the  best  form  of  government. 

XV. — (1.)  What  was  caused   by  separate  existence  of  tribes?     (2.)  What 
did   this   separation    often  occasion.      (3.)  What  is  said  concerning  history  ? 
XVI.  —  (1.)    What   is   said   of     the   rivalship   of    separate   communities? 
(2.)  What  was  the  consequence? 

XVn. — (1.)  What  were  individ^ials  of  a  tribe  destined  to  learn?  (2.)  How 
did  communities  resemble  individuals  in  this  particular  ? 

XVm. — (1.)  How  did  the  Creator  permit  communities  to  grow  up? 
(2  )  What  was  the  design  of  God  in  permitting  this  ? 

XIX.— (1.)  What  were  allowed  to  be  instituted?  (2  )  What  was  to  result 
from  this  independent  action  ? 

XX. — (1.)  What  is  now  before  our  consideration  as  students?  (2.)  How 
ehftll  we  examine  this  important  matter  ? 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

INCREASE    OF    WEALTH. 

I. — (1.)  An  early  savage  democracy  exhibited  individualism,  or 
personal  independence,  in  agreement  with  combination.  (2.)  There 
was  no  positive  regulation  existing  between  members  of  the  tribe, 
except  a  respect  for  natural  rights. 

II. — (1.)  Personal  bravery  was  relied  upon  as  protection  of  per- 
sonal security,  (2.)  When  injuries  were  suffered,  retaliation  was 
allowed  to  the  degree  or  amount  of  wrong  inflicted. 

ni. — (1.)  Property  in  a  tribe  accumulated  by  degrees  through 
various  means.  (2.)  It  increased  according  to  the  activity  cf  com- 
petition between  individuals. 

IV. — (1.)  The  common  store,  by  which  a  combined  tribe  made 
provision  for  the  wants  of  all  its  members,  was  a  prudent  measure 
while  *,he  community  was  small,  like  a  single  family.  (2.)  When 
numbers  increased,  each  individual  sought  to  provide  for  his  own 
household. 

V. — (1.)  Competition  then  commenced  between  one  man  and 
another.  (2.)  Each  tried  to  obtain,  and  to  appropriate  to  his  own 
use,  whatever  was  regarded  as  wealth  or  property. 

VI. — (I.)  Corn  and  fruits  were  collected,  cattle  were  raised, 
and  clothing,  arms  and  ornaments  were  accumulated.     (2.)  Each 

I. — (1.)  What  was  exhibited  in  an  early  savage  democracy?  (2.)  Did  any 
compact  exist  between  members  of  a  tribe  ? 

II. — (1.)  What  was  the  protection  for  personal  security?  (2.)  What  is  said 
of  retaliation? 

in. — (1.)  How  did  property  accumulate?     (2.)  How  did  it  increase  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  is  said  regarding  the  common  store?  (2.)  What  took  place 
afterward  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  did  each  individual  seek  ?     (2.)  What  did  each  try  to  do? 

VI.— (1.)  What  was  the  result  of  this  competition?  (2.)  How  was  pro- 
perty  distinguished? 

S  * 


^o  History  of  Governments. 

collection  was  kept  iu  the  separate  field  or  dwelling-place  of  the 
individual  who  collected  it. 

VII. — (1.)  Every  cabin  became  a  store-house  for  the  man  and  the 

family  who  occupied  it.  (2.)  This  or  that  ox,  sheep,  ass,  weapon, 
or  armor,  was  identified  as  the  property  of  this  or  that  individual 
(3.)  It  was  guarded  by  his  personal  care  from  being  appropriated 
hy  any  other  member  of  the  tribe. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  collection  of  articles  for  his  own  use  by  one 
savage  excited  the  emulation  of  others.  (2.)  The  desire  to  amass 
grew  stronger  as  the  practice  of  collecting  continued. 

IX. — (1.)  One  individual,  by  superior  skill,  or  better  fortune, 
was  able  to  accumulate  faster  than  another.  (2.)  He  became  the 
possessor  of  large  numbers  of  cattle  and  quantities  of  goods. 

X. — (1.)  When  individuals  went  out  to  war  they  often  came 
back  with  spoils  wrested  from  their  defeated  enemies.  (2.)  The 
victors  were  accustomed  to  divide  their  spoils  among  themselves. 

XI. — (1.)  Such  spoils  usually  consisted  of  cattle,  goods,  and 
arms.  (2.)  Sometimes  they  comprised  captives,  taken  in  battle,  or 
dragged  from  their  homes.  (3.)  The  captives  were  regarded  as 
property,  like  cattle  and  armor,  and  were  divided  with  other 
plunder. 

XII.— (1.)  The  possession  of  slaves  thus  grew  out  of  the  settled 
life  of  a  community.  (2.)  Enemies  who  would  have  been  slain  out- 
right, or  reserved  for  torture,  by  a  tribe  of  hunters,  were  captured 
by  a  settled  tribe,  in  order  that  they  might  be  made  servants. 

Vn. — (1.)  What  did  every  cabin  become?    (2.)  What  is  said  of  property  1 

(3.)  How  was  it  guarded? 

VIII.— (1.)  What  i3  said  of  the  collection  of  property  ?  (2.)  What  of  the 
desire  to  amass  ? 

IX.— (1.)  What  followed  the  pursuit  of  wealth  ?     (2.)  What  was  the  eflfect? 

X. — (1.)  What  was  the  result  of  a  warlike  expedition  ?  (2.)  How  were  spoils 
divided '.' 

XL— (1.)  Of  what  did  these  spoils  usually  consist?  (2.)  What  else  did  they 
comprise  ?     (3.)  How  were  these  regarded  ? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  is  said  about  the  possession  of  slaves?  (2.)  What  about 
enemies  ? 


Increase  of  Wealth.  5"! 

XIII. — (I.)  Each  ca[)tive  became  a  meau.s  of  iucreasiug  the 
profit  of  a  settled  savage,  (2.)  He  relieved  his  master  of  labor 
ill  the  field  and  habitation. 

XrV. — (1.)  A  soldier  who  returned  with  a  captive  either  made 
him  his  own  slave,  or  transferred  him  to  anotlier  member  of  the 
tribe  as  a  gift,  or  for  a  price.  (2.)  It  soon  grew  customary  to 
expose  and  sell  prisoners  in  the  streets  or  markets. 

XV. — (1.)  The  dangerous  influence  of  increasing  wealth  now 
began  to  be  felt.  (2.)  It  caused  a  disturbance  of  that  equality 
which  had  previously  existed  between  all  members  of  the  com- 
mnnity. 

XVI. — (1.)  When  plunder  was  divided  among  families  whose 
males  had  taken  part  in  a  war  expedition,  the  leader's  share  was 
usually  larger  than  that  of  others.  (2.)  He  thus  had  favors  at  his 
disposal  to  a  greater  extent  than  his  fellows. 

XVII. — (1.)  Sometimes  such  a  leader  distributed  his  share 
among  those  whom  he  desired  to  attach  to  his  interest.  (2.)  The 
recipients  often  became  his  personal  adherents. 

XVIII. — (1.)  In  this  way  wealth  accumulated  in  the  hands  of  a 
portion  of  the  community  who  were  more  fortunate  or  more  skillful 
than  others.  (2.)  Plunder  in  war,  increase  of  flocks,  products  of 
the  soil,  and  captives,  were  continual  sources  of  wealth  to  some 
individuals. 


Xm — (1.)  Of  what  was  erery  captive  made  a  means?  (2.)  What  did 
he  do? 

XIV.— (1.)  How  did  traffic  in  slaves  originate  ?  (2.)  What  afterward  became 
customary  ? 

XV.— (1.)  What  was  now  felt  in  the  savage  community  ?  (2.)  Wliat  did  it 
cause  ? 

XVI. — (1.)  What  is  said  about  a  division  of  the  plunder  taken  ?  (2.)  What, 
advantage  would  a  leader  thus  have? 

XVn.— (1.)  What  did  a  leader  sometimes  do?     (2.)  What  was  the  effect? 

XVin.— (1.)  What  is  said  regarding  wealth  ?  (2.)  What  were  the  sourceii 
of  weali,h  ? 


^2  History  of  Governments. 

XIX. — (1.)  There  were  other  members  of  the  commuaity  who 
lacked  energy  aud  skill,  or  were  less  fortunate  than  their  fellows. 
(2.)  These  failed  to  gather  so  much  property.  (3.)  They  lived  in 
the  households  of  richer  friends  or  relatives.  (4.)  They  assisted 
the  latter  in  cultivating  the  soil,  manufacturing  arms  and  clothing, 
watching  herds,  or  building  dwellings. 

XX. — (1.)  When  captives  were  made  slaves,  the  poor  members 
of  a  savage  democracy  found  themselves  unnecessary  to  their  richer 
fellow-citizens.  (2.)  This  was  because  the  labors  of  field  and 
household  were  transferred  to  the  slaves. 

XXI. — (1.)  Poor  citizens  were  obliged  to  occupy,  with  theii 
families,  a  position  much  like  that  of  the  slaves.  (2.)  The  wealthy 
could  remain  idle,  letting  servants  do  all  the  work  necessary  for 
their  support. 

XXII. — (1.)  Wealth  in  the  hands  of  a  few  individuals  was  de- 
structive of  independent  character  in  many  who  remained  poor. 
(2.)  Democratic  sentiment,  through  which  the  people  ordered  all 
public  affairs,  began  to  decline.  (3  )  The  power  of  riches  possessed 
by  ambitious  men  began  to  undermine  popular  power. 

XXIII. — (1.)  The  combined  strength  of  tlie  community  ap- 
peared to  be  greater,  but  only  because  its  numbers  were  greater. 
(2.)  Sympathy  between  individuals  was  weakened  because  rich  and 
poor  no  longer  counted  on  mutual  friendship.  (3.)  Slaves  multi- 
plied, but  were  allowed  no  rights.  (4.)  Poor  meu  multiplied,  but 
their  interests  in  the  commonwealth  decreased. 

XIX.— (1.)  Were  all  the  members  of  a  tribe  thus  wealtliy  ?  (2.)  What  is 
said  of  these  ?  (3.)  How  did  these  subsist  ?  (4.)  How  did  the  poorer  class 
occupy  themselves  to  procure  a  livelihood  ? 

XX. — (1.)  What  was  the  effect  of  slavery  on  this  poorer  class  of  the  com- 
munity ?     (2.)  Why  was  this? 

XXI. — (1 .)  What  position  did  the  poorer  citizens  occupy  ?  (2.)  What  could 
the   wealthy  do? 

XXn.— (1.)  What  evils  were  now  felt?  (2.)  What  began  to  decline? 
(a.)  What  was  undermined  ? 

XXin. — (1.)  Was  the  combined  community  stronger  at  this  period? 
(2.)  How  was  the  state  injured  ?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  slaves?  (4.)  What  of 
poor  men  ? 


Increase  of  Wealth.  53 

XXIV. — (1.)  The  forced  relation  of  master  and  slave  placed 
one  peii^on  entirely  at  the  disposal  of  another.  (2.)  This  contra- 
dicted the  principle  of  equality  formerly  recognized  between  man 
and  man. 

XXV. — (1.)  The  labor  of  slaves,  in  household,  and  field,  and 
marker,  was  injurious  to  their  owners.  (2.)  It  allowed  the  latter  to 
live  in  idleness,  and  to  pursue  only  their  own  pleasures. 

XXVI. — (1.)  Owners  of  goods,  houses,  cattle,  and  slaves,  were 
able  to  command  labor  and  service  from  their  destitute  and  depend- 
ent fellow-citizt-us.  (2.)  Unthrifty,  or  unforrunate  men,  were  obliged 
to  live  precariously,  without  store  for  future  necessities. 

XXVII. — (I.)  The  body-politic  no  longer  possessed  a  simple 
democratic  character.  (2.)  Its  members  were  divided  into  classes. 
(3.)  There  were  ricli  citizens,  poor  citizens,  and  slaves. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  The  independence  of  every  single  man  had  been 
the  basis  of  democracy  in  the  tribe.  (2.)  Democracy  itself  was  the 
exercise  of  power  by  all  the  individuals  of  a  tribe  combined  as 
equals. 

XXIX. — (1.)  The  popular  assembly  or  council  of  the  commu- 
nity had  been  common  ground  for  all.  (2.)  Each  man  there  claimed 
bis  right  to  speak  and  have  his  opinions  considered  by  his  fellow- 
men. 

XXX. — (1.)  In  war,  or  in  the  chase,  every  man  of  the  tribe  had 

XXIV. — (1.)  What  was  the  effect  of  the  relation  of  master  and  slave? 
(2.)  What  did  tliis  contradict? 

XXV. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  labor  of  slaves?  (2.)  Wiiat  did 
it  allow  ? 

XXVI. — (1.)  What  were  owners  of  property  ah'e  to  do?  (2.)  What  is  said 
about  other  people  ? 

XXVII.— (l.j  What  was  the  condition  of  the  tribe  at  this  stage?  (2.)  Uow 
were  its  members  divided?     (8  )  What  were  these  classes  ? 

XXVin. — (I.)  What  had  been  the  basis  of  democracy  ?  (2.)  What  was 
democracy  ? 

XluIZ. — (1.)  What  had  been  the  character  of  the  popular  assembly? 
(2.)  What  did  each  man  claim  in  the  popular  meeting? 

XXX. — (1.)    What   other  rights   did   the    members   of    a   tribe   exercise? 


^4  History  of  Governments. 

participated,  carrying  into  execution  whatsoever  the  combined  people 
resolved  upou,  (2.)  The  shares  of  honor  and  profit  were  equally 
distributed. 

XXXI. — (1.)  Now  individual  independence  became  outweighed 
by  influence  of  wealth.  (2.)  In  the  popular  assembly  those  who 
were  dependent  dared  not  assert  equality  with  the  rich.  (3.)  They 
either  preserved  silence,  or  echoed  the  voices  of  their  patrons. 
(4.)  In  warlike  expeditions,  those  only  who  could  provide  arms 
and  support  themselves,  were  allowed  to  share  in  the  spoils  of 
battle. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


GROWTH      OF      CLASSES 


I. — (1.)  The  democratic  principle  was  based  on  a  desire  of  each 
individual  to  be  personally  independeut  of  others.  (2.)  This  individ- 
ual desire  became  now  merged  in  a  jealousy  of  class  regarding  class. 

II. — (1.)  The  poorer  citizens  continued  to  maintain  that  equality 
was  a  just  principle.  (2.)  They  complained  of  their  own  poverty 
and  of  the  possessions  of  their  fellow  democrats. 

III. — (1.)  The  distinctions  founded  on  possession  of  property  in 
land  now  began  to  be  recognized.  (2.)  Ownership  of  cattle  and 
slaves  became  the  measure  of  occupancy  or  apportionment  of 
land. 

(2)  What  shares  were  equally  distributed  among  the  members? 

XXXI. — (1.)  What  change  now  took  place?  (2.)  How  were  the  poorer 
people  affected  in  the  popular  assembly  ?  (3.)  What  did  they  do  ?  (4.)  What 
i3  said  concerning  warlike  expeditions  ? 

I. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  democratic  principle  ?  (2.)  What  about  different 
classes ".' 

11.-  z'l.)  What  did  the  poorer  people  do?     (2.)  Of  what  did  they  complain? 

m. — (1.)  What  distinctions  now  began  to  be  recognized?  (2.)  What  va 
said  about  laud  occupancy  ? 


Growth  of  Classes.  ^5 

IV". — (I.)  In  the  earlier  democracy  every  man  who  raised 
flocks  acu  herds,  permitted  them  to  graze  wherever  good  pasture 
was  to  be  found.  (2.)  Cattle  roamed  here  and  there,  under  the 
care  of  sons,  daughters  or  dependents. 

V. — (1.)  When  planting  and  cultivating  land  became  known, 
each  individual,  or  a  household,  selected  as  much  land  as  could  be 
used  by  the  force  at  command.  (2.)  Whatever  crops  were  raised 
belonged  to  the  cultivator  or  household. 

VI. — (1.)  When  a  household  increased  in  numbers,  its  members 
occupied  more  land.  (2.)  When  they  added  slaves,  as  laborers,  they 
demanded  still  more  for  use.  (3.)  A  small  household,  without 
slaves,  was  restricted  in  its  usp  or  possession  of  land,  because  unable 
to  work  it. 

VII. — (1.)  A  family  of  increased  numbers,  comprising  children, 
domestics  and  slaves,  required  still  more  land.  (2.)  Its  members 
were  powerful  enough  to  occupy  and  keep  for  their  own  use  a  large 
proportion  of  the  best  grazing  and  planting  laud. 

VIII. — (1.)  Connection  by  marriage  began  to  take  place  between 
families  who  owned  the  largest  flocks  and  used  the  most  land.  (2.) 
This  was  done,  in  order  that  the  wealth  of  each  might  be  increased, 

IX. — {!.)  The  members  of  a  small  household,  or  sons  and 
daughters  of  domestics  and  other  dependents,  could  only  choose 
their  marriage  partners  from  families  of  their  own  condition. 
(2.)  Such  persons,  therefore,  did  not  increase  their  store  of  flocks 
or  use  of  laud  by  marriage. 

IV.— (1  )  How  did  flocks  and  herds  subsist  in  earlier  times?  (2.)  Where 
did  they  graze  ? 

V. — (1.)  How  was  land  occupied  for  agricultural  purposes  ?  (2.)  What  be- 
came of  crops? 

VI. — (1.)  How  did  the  occupation  of  land  increase?  (2.)  How  was  it  re 
stricted  ? 

VII. — (1.)  How  did  land  possession  increase  in  some  fomilies?  (2.)  WhaV 
were  its  members  able  to  do  ? 

VIII. — (1.)  How  did  wealthy  families  combine  with  each  other?  (2)  What 
was  the  reason  of  this  ? 

IX. — (1.)  How  did  the  small  and  weak  families  choose  their  partners  in 
marrage  .'    (2.)  Wliat  was  the  codsequence  ? 


56  History  of  Governments. 

X.— (1.)  A  few  families,  increasiug  iu  number  and  power,  were 
able  to  obtain  possession,  by  constant  use,  of  all  the  best  land. 
(2.)  This  confined  weaker  families  to  that  land  only  which  remained. 

XI. — (1.)  The  poorer  people  were  compelled  to  labor  on  limited 
spaces  of  soil  in  order  to  support  a  few  animals,  or  raise  grain  to 
sustain  their  own  lives.  (2.)  When  their  families  increased  in  num- 
bers the  land  became  insufficient  for  their  support.  (3.)  They  were 
obliged  to  give  up  what  they  worked  for  thera.-elves,  and  to  become 
dependents  upon  larger  landholders.  (4.)  They  then  employed 
themselves  in  hand-labor,  making  clothing,  arms,  ornaments,  and 
utensils,  which  they  gave  to  the  rich  in  exchange  for  provisions. 

XII. — (1.)  The  poorer  people  thus  became  artisans,  manufactu- 
rers, and  laborers,  in  a  tribe.  (2.)  Children  of  these  persons  were 
taught  to  follow  the  business  of  their  parents.  (3.)  Poor  families 
became  connected  by  marriage  and  soon  formed  a  separate  class. 
(4.)  Members  of  this  class  were  only  distinguished  from  the  slaves 
oy  having  a  right  to  mingle  in  the  popular  meeting. 

XIII. — (1.)  In  this  meeting  the  voice  of  an  artisan,  shepherd, 
or  domestic  was  still  regarded  to  be  of  like  weight  with  that  of  a 
man  who  held  flocks  and  herds,  and  occupied  large  tracts  of  land. 
(2.)  Large  landholders,  however,  increased  in  power  and  influence. 
(3.)  They  claimed  a  social  superiority  over  their  fellow-democrats, 
founded  on  the  possession  of  the  best  fields  and  chief  wealth  of 
their  tribe.  (5.)  They  left  the  cultivation  of  laud  to  servants  and 
slaves,  and  devoted  their  own  days  to  sports,  idleness,  or  other 
methods  of  dissipating  time. 

X. — (1.)  What  followed  from  thia  distinction  ?  (2.)  How  were  other  fami- 
lies affected  ? 

XL — (1.)  What  was  the  condition  of  the  poorer  people?  (2.)  What  fol- 
lowed? (3.)  What  were  they  then  obliged  to  do?  (4.)  How  did  they  then 
employ  themselves  ? 

XII. — (1.)  What  did  the  poorer  people  become  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  their 
ehiidren?  (3.)  How  did  they  become  connected,  and  what  was  formed  there- 
by?    (4.)  How  was  this  class  distinguished  from  the  slaves  ? 

XIII. — (1.)  What  privilege  did  a  poor  freeman  still  retain?  (2.)  What  is 
said  of  large  landholders  ?  (3.)  What  did  they  claim  ?  ^4.)  How  did  they 
conduct  themselves  ? 


Representation.  ^y 

XIV. — (1.)  Possessiou  of  land  and  the  relations  of  raasteisbip 
and  servitude  encroached  upon  individual  independence.  (2  )  Tlie 
body-politic  had  grown  healthy  through  the  independence  of  each 
member.  (3.)  It  became  diseased  by  the  idle  luxury  of  the  rich 
and  unprofitable  toil  of  the  poor. 

XV. — (1.)  Political  equality  and  a  true  commonwealth  of  the 
people  cannot  exist  with  a  separation  of  interests.  (2.)  Individual 
independence  cannot  continue  where  one  class  is  held  in  contempt  or 
regarded  as  inferior  by  another. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

REPRESENTATION. 

I. — (1.)  At  this  period  of  a  commonwealth,  personal  ambition 
began  to  display  itself.  (2.)  More  than  one  individual  aspired  to 
control,  for  selfish  purposes,  the  power  exercised  by  all  the  people. 

II. — (1.)  Sometimes  one  man,  and  sometimes  another,  through 
influence  of  gifts,  or  by  attractive  manners,  succeeded  in  influenc 
ing  his  fellow-democrats.  (2.)  He  gained  followers  who  sustained 
his  opinions  in  the  meetings  of  the  tribe. 

III. — (1.)  A  popular  man  of  this  sort  often  induced  the  tribe  to 
declare  hostilities  against  other  tribes.  (2.)  He  was  then  selected, 
through  the  influence  of  his  friends,  to  be  a  leader  or  chief  in  the 
expedition. 

XIV. — (1.)  How  was  the  body  politic  affected  thereby?  (2.)  How  had  it 
grown  healthy  ?     (3.)  How  did  it  become  diseased  ? 

XV. — (1.)  What  is  said  regarding  political  equality  and  a  true  common 
wealth?     (2.)  What  concerning  individual  independence? 

I.— (1.)  What  began  to  display  itself  at  this  period?  (2.)  What  is  said  of 
individuals  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  was  the  result  of  this  ?     (2.)  What  did  such  a  man  gain  ? 

m. — (1.)  What  could  a  popular  man  do?     (2.)  How  did  he  profit  by  thia? 

2* 


58  History  of  Governments. 

IV.~  -i,  1  )  Tliit,  sometimes  awakened  the  jealousy  of  some  other 
ambitioiiB  mau,  whose  influence  controlled  another  party.  (2.)  The 
tvvo  leaders  then  disputed  for  the  ascendency. 

v.—  (1  )  Each  leader  became  the  head  of  a  faction  of  the  com- 
munity. (2.)  The  people,  in  supporting  one  or  the  other,  forgot 
that  neitlier  of  them  possessed  any  real  claim  to  authority. 

VI. —  (1.)  Sometimes  one  of  these  ambitious  leaders  succeeded 
in  gaining  the  support  of  the  priests.  (2.)  He  combined  with  them 
to  control  the  whole  community. 

VII. — (1.)  In  such  case  the  priests  declared  a  man  whom  they 
supported  to  be  appointed  by  the  gods  as  a  leader  or  chief  of  the 
tribe.  (2.)  They  called  upon  all  the  people  to  follow  his  direc- 
tions. 

VIII. — (1.)  If  the  people  submitted  quietly  to  this  decision,  the 
fortunate  leader  became  chief,  or  governor  of  the  tribe.  (2.)  He 
exercised  powers,  more  or  less  arbitrary,  over  his  fellows. 

IX. — (1.)  Sometimes  an  ambitious  leader  called  upon  the  poorer 
class  to  sustain  him  against  the  rich.  (2.)  He  promised  the  former 
a  share  in  the  lands  and  wealth  of  the  latter,  in  return  for  obe- 
dience to  himself. 

X. —  (1.)  Leadership  and  chiefdom  arose  through  various  means, 
more  or  less  violent.  (2  )  It  always  grew  out  of  a  division  of 
interests  between  individuals  and  classes.  (3.)  It  was  based  on 
the  decline  of  personal  independence  and  political  equality. 

IV. — (1.)  What  followed  such  a  course  ?     (2.)  What  did  the  two  leaders  do? 

V. — (1  )  What  was  each  leader?  (2.)  What  was  the  position  of  the  com- 
munity toward  those  men  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  sometimes  happened  ?     (2.)  What  was  the  result? 

Vn.— (1.)  What  WAS  the  course  of  the  priests?  (2.)  What  did  they  call 
upon  tlie  people  to  do  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  What  occurred  if  the  people  submitted?  (2.)  What  powers 
had  he  ? 

IX. — (1.)  In  what  other  way  did  an  ambitious  man  operate?  (2.)  What 
did  he  promise  ? 

X. — (1.)  How  was  leadership  gained  ?  (2.)  What  did  it  grow  from  ?  (3) 
On  what  was  it  based  ? 


Representation.  59 

XL— (1.)  The  people  were  not  always  ready  to  yield  themselves 
quietly  to  the  guidance  of  a  leader.  (2.)  They  often  resisted  the 
projects  of  wealthy  or  ambitious  men. 

XII. — (1.)  In  such  cases  poorer  citizens  sustained  each  other  in 
the  popular  meeting.  (2.)  They  demanded  that  their  numbers 
should  be  respected,  and  their  rights  acknowledged. 

XIII. — (1.)  When  such  a  movement  took  place,  class  was 
arrayed  openly  against  class.  (2.)  The  wiser  persons  of  the  tribe 
saw  a  necessity  of  explaiuiag*  the  relations  between  citizens,  whe- 
ther poor  or  rich. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  result  was  an  agreement  or  compact  made  by 
all  the  tribe,  assembled  in  public  council.  (2.)  A  method,  or  regu- 
lation, of  power  was  adopted,  with  the  consent  of  all. 

XV.— (1.)  By  the  agreement  a  limited  number  of  individuals 
was  selected  from  all  the  members  of  a  tribe.  (2.)  These  indivi- 
duals became  established,  as  a  body,  by  themselves. 

XVI. — (1-)  Each  party  or  class  selected  one  or  more  from  its 
number,  to  represent  the  wishes  or  claims  of  all.  (2.)  The  persons 
selected  were  authorized  to  consult  upon  matters  of  interest  to  the 
whole  tribe. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  selected  persons  had  power  to  decide  what 
public  action  was  necessary  in  regard  to  all  classes.  (2  )  When  a 
decision  was  made,  the  whole  tribe  assembled  in  popular  meeting,  to 
accept  or  to  reject  it  by  their  voices. 


XI. — (1.)  Were  the  people  always  ready  to  submit?  (2.)  What  did  they 
often  do  ? 

Xn. — (1.)  What  combination  was  then  formed?  (2)  What  did  they 
demand  ? 

XIII. — (1.)  What  did  such  a  movement  occasion?  (2.)  What  was  founo 
necessary  ? 

XIV. — (1.)  What  was  the  consequence?     (2.)  What  was  adopted  ? 

XV. —  (1.)  What  did  this  agreement  effect?     (2.)  What  became  established? 

XVI. — (1.)  How  was  this  body  constituted  ?  (2.)  What  authority  was  given 
lo  it? 

XVn. — (1.)  What  power  had  this  representative  council?  (2.)  What  after 
ward  took  place  ? 


6o  History  of  Governments. 

XVm. — (1.)  This  was  the  beginning  of  delegated  authority, 
or  popular  representation.  (2.)  Each  individual  iu  the  tribe 
gave  up  his  personal  right  to  state  his  own  grievance,  or  to  originate 
any  action  iu  the  assembly. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  people  were,  at  first,  tenacious  of  individual 
sovereignty,  and  only  delegated  a  limited  power  to  propose  measures 
or  regulations.  (2.)  They  reserved  to  themselves  the  right  to  reject 
vr  accept  all  measures  after  they  should  be  proposed. 

XX. — (1.)  This  early  method  of  representation  was  an  effort  of 
natural  equality  to  assert  itself.  (2.)  The  people,  as  individuals, 
desired  relief  from  injurious  oppression. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  body-politic  became  aware  that  disease  was 
encroaching  upon  its  life.  (2.)  It  sought  a  remedy,  by  instituting  a 
new  action  in  the  system. 

XXII. — (1.)  In  choosing  representatives,  each  class  selected 
persons  who  were  esteemed  for  wisdom  and  virtue.  (2.)  The  first 
representative  body  chosen  in  a  tribe  comprised  the  bravest  warriors 
and  wisest  old  men.  (3.)  Such  a  body  became  justly  honored  for 
the  ability  and  honesty  of  its  members. 

XXIII. — (1.)  When  the  earliest  democratic  representation  was 
formed  in  Greece,  its  members  were  distinguished  by  the  title  aruios, 
or  the  best.  (2.)  Their  authority  was  termed  aristocracy,  from  firi-tos 
[aptcrrof] ,  the  best,  or  wisest,  and  krateo   [/fpa-?/w],  to  govern,  or 


XVm. — (1.)  Of  what  was  this  the  l»€ginning?  (2.)  What  did  each  indivi- 
dual yield  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  How  was  the  representative  body  restricted?  (2.)  What  power 
was  reserved  to  the  people  ? 

XX. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  this  first  method  of  representation? 
(2.)  What  did  the  people  desire  ? 

XXI. — (1.)  Of  what  did  the  body  pohtic  become  aware?  (2.)  What  did  it 
eeek  ? 

X^TT (1.)  What  was  regarded  most  in  choosing  delegates  ?     (2.)  What 

iid  the  first  representative  body  comprise?  (3.)  What  was  the  result  of 
this? 

XXm. — (1.)  What  is  said  about  the  earliest  democratic  representation  in 
Greece  ?     (2.)  What  was  their  authority  termed  ? 


Representation.  6i 

kratos   [fcparo^],  power.     (3.)  The  whole  signified  the  power,  or 
authority  of  the  wisest  or  best  citizens. 

XXrV". — (1.)  The  aristocratic  form  of  government  was,  at  first, 
purely  representative.  (2.)  It  was  delegated  by  the  people,  and 
was  limited  in  its  powers.  (3.)  The  first  aristocrats  were  repre- 
sentatives of  all  free  individuals  and  of  each  class  of  the  community. 

XXV. — (1.)  One  or  more  of  the  old  men  represented  the 
opinions  and  interests  of  all  the  elders  dwelling  in  the  tribe.  (2.) 
One  or  more  of  the  warriors  represented  the  effective  war-power  of 
the  community.  (3 )  One  or  more  of  the  landholders  represented 
the  property-possessors  of  the  tribe.  (4.)  One  or  more  of  the 
rustic  or  dependent  class,  represented  the  mass  of  the  people  not 
possessed  of  herds,  slaves,  or  lands.  (5.)  One  or  more  of  the 
priests,  represented  the  religious  character  of  the  community,  or 
the  interests  of  their  gods. 

XXVI. — (1.)  The  original  savage  democracy  became  first  modi- 
fied by  the  formation  of  such  a  limited  deliberative  body.  (2.) 
Each  interest,  or  division  of  the  people,  possessed  its  own  exponents 
in  the  body  of  select  or  best  men. 

XXVII. — (1.)  This  original  representative  body,  of  the  best  and 
wisest,  became  afterward  corrupted.  (2.)  It  then  gave  place  to 
an  overbearing  class  of  pretentiers  who  called  themselves  aristo- 
crats, or  nobles. 


(S.)  What  did  the  combination  of  words  signify? 

XXTV. — (1.)  What  was  the  original  character  of  aristocratic  government? 
(2.)  How  was  it  formed?     (3.)  What  were  the  first  aristocrats? 

XXV. — (1.)  What  did  the  old  men  represent?  (2.)  What  did  warriors 
represent  ?  (3.)  What  did  landholders  represent  ?  (4.)  What  did  rustics 
represent?     (5.)  What  did  priests  represent? 

XXVL — (1.)  What  was  modified?     (2  )  What  did  each  interest  possess? 

XXVn.— (1.)  What  happened  to  this  body  of  wise  men?  (2.)  To  what 
did  it  give  place  ? 


CHAPTER   XVI. 


EARLY    ARISTOCRACY. 


I. — (].)  Representation  of  classes  secured  a  consideration  of  va- 
rious interests  in  the  body  of  select  wise  men.  (2.)  It  did  not  re- 
press the  ambition  of  popular  leaders,  or  their  influence  over  the 
people. 

II. — (1.)  All  questions,  after  being  aofreed  upon  by  the  wise  men, 
were  submitted  to  the  people's  meeting  for  final  determination. 
(2.)  In  the  people's  meeting,  an  ambitious  man  could  oppose  the 
wisest  measures.  (3.)  If  he  were  cunning  and  influential,  he  was 
able  to  cause  tiieir  rejection  by  the  people. 

III. — (1.)  This  caused  disagreement  between  the  people  and  th^ir 
representatives,  and  the  latter  were  constantly  changed.  (2.)  Wise 
men  often  gave  place  to  ignorant  and  dishonest  delegates,  who 
cared  more  for  personal  than  for  public  interests. 

rV". — (1.)  The  wisest  or  best  men  of  the  community  became  out- 
numbered by  the  election  of  delegates  of  inferior  character.  (2.) 
The  representative  body  grew  corrupt  and  unscrupulous. 

V. — (1.)  A  few  cunning  men  exercised  all  power  in  the  state. 
(2.)  They  were  able  to  propose  measures  in  the  representative  body. 
(3.)  They  could  afterward  influence  a  large  party  in  the  popular 
meetinsrs. 


I. —  (1.)  What  did  representation  secure?     (2.)  What  did  it  not  do? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  public  questions?     (2.)  What  could  an  ambitioua 
man  do?     (3.)    What  was  he  able  to  cause? 

rH. — (1.)  What  effect  did  such  a  course  have?  (2.)  What  resuk  followed  ? 

rV. — (1.)  How  did  the  wise  representatives  become  outnumbered?  (2.)  What 
then  took  place  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  did  a  few  men  then  do?     (2.*  What  were  they  able  to  pro- 
pose  ?     (3.)  What  further  power  had  they  ? 
63 


Early  Aristocracy.  63 

VI. — (1.)  These  meu  iucreased  their  power  bj  combiaing  the 
priestly  iuterest  with  that  of  the  wealthy  class.  (2.)  They  com- 
bined these  classes  with  that  of  the  warriors,  who  defended  the  com- 
munity against  other  tribes. 

VII. — (1.)  The  community  became  thus  divided  into  two  princi- 
pal orders.  (2.)  The  first  order  comprised  priests,  landhold- 
ers, and  soldiers.  (3.)  The  second  was  composed  of  all  persons 
who  did  not  possess  property,  but  were  obliged  to  labor.  (4.)  These 
two  divisions  formed  the  body-politic  or  freemen.  (5.)  The  rest  of 
the  population  were  slaves  without  rights  or  privileges. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  wealthy  division  possessing  lands  and  slaves 
was  independent  of  the  other.  (2.)  The  poorer  division,  composed 
of  individuals  more  or  less  jealous  of  each  other,  occupied  a  depend- 
ent position,  (3.)  Many  of  the  latter  were  ready  to  follow  any 
leader,  in  the  public  meeting,  who  promised  them  favors.  (4.)  Am- 
bitious leaders  flattered  their  vanity,  by  calling  them  equal  to  the 
wealthier  people. 

IX. — (1.)  The  voices  of  this  class  were  sometimes  raised  in  sup- 
port of  a  good  man  or  measure.  (2.)  Again  they  were  lifted  in 
favor  of  a  bad  man  or  measure.  (3  )  The  people  were  usually  igno- 
rant, and  influenced  by  orators  in  tlie  public  meeting. 

X. — (1.)  The  orators  were  men  who  could  talk  in  an  artful  and 
popular  style.  (2.)  The  people  listened  to  them  and  followed  their 
advice. 

XI. — (1.)  When  republics  existed  in  Greece,  such  talking  men 
were  often  found  in  the  meetings  of  the  peopje.     (2.)  These  were 

VI. — (1.)  How  did  they  increase  their  power?     (2.)  What  else  did  they  do  t 

Vn.— (1.)  How  did  the  community  become  divided?  (2.)  What  did  the 
first  order  comprise  ?  (3.)  Who  composed  the  second?  (4.)  What  did  the 
two  divisions  form?     (5.)  What  is  said  of  the  remaining  population  ? 

Vni. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  wealthy  division?  (2.)  What  of  the  poorer? 
(3.)  What  were  many  of  the  latter  ready  to  do?  (4.)  IIow  were  they  influ- 
enced ? 

IX. — (1.)  IIow  were  their  voices  raised  at  times  ?  (2.)  IIow  at  other  times: 
(3.)   What  id  said  of  the  character  of  these  persons  ? 

X. — (1.)  Who  were  the  orators?     (2.)  IIow  did  the  people  regard  them? 

XL — (.1,;   What   were  found  in   Grecian  republics?      (2.)  What  were  such 


64  History  of  Governments. 

called  demagogues, — from  two  Greek  words  defiot;,  the  people,  and 
aywyb^,  a  leader.     (3.)  The  whole  signified  leaders  of  ihe  people. 

XII. —  (1.)  When  the  people  of  a  coramnnity  became  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  power  soon  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  few  cnn- 
nnig  men.  (2.)  These  few  proposed  measnrcs,  and  the  represen- 
tative body  followed  their  directions. 

XIII. — (1.)  They  took  care  to  favor  only  those  who  were  will- 
ing to  obey  them.  (2.)  When  a  captain  was  to  be  chosen  for  the 
soldiers,  they  proposed  a  man  of  their  own  party,  devoted  to  their 
interest.     (3.)  Tliey  induced  the  people  to  choose  such  a  captain. 

XIV. — (1.)  When  such  a  leader  returned  from  war,  bringing 
captives  and  spoils,  the  soldiers,  priests  and  rich  men,  were  often 
disposed  to  make  him  chief,  or  ruler,  of  the  tribe.  (2.)  This  was 
because  they  knew  he  would  be  influenced  by  them. 

XV. — (1.)  They  took  advantage  of  his  popularity  with  the  peo- 
ple, because  of  his  triumph  over  enemies.  (2.)  They  proposed  to 
the  public  assembly  that  he  should  be  called  their  head  man,  judge, 
or  king. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  usual  way  in  which  a  king  was  elected,  was  by 
the  voices  of  all  the  people.  (2.)  In  return,  a  chief  was  willing  to 
give  a  share  in  the  government  to  those  who  had  proposed  his  election. 

XVII. — (1.)  He  selected  different  men  from  the  soldiers,  the 
priests,  and  the  land  holders,  and  made  them   his  assistants.     (2.) 

talking  men  called  in  Greece?     (3.)  What  does  this  signify  ? 

XII. — (1.)  What  followed  the  division  of  a  community  into  classes?  (2.) 
What  did  the  few  propose  ? 

Xni. — (1.)  What  did  the  few  influential  men  take  care  to  do?  (2.)  What 
sort  of  captains  did  they  propose  for  the  soldiers  ?  (3.)  What  did  they  then 
do? 

XrV. — (1.)  What  were  the  combined  classes  often  disposed  to  do,?  (2.) 
Why  was  this  ? 

XV-— (1-)  Of  what  did  they  take  advantage  ?    (2.)  What  did  they  propose  ? 

XVI.— (1.)  How  was  a  king  elected?  (2.)  What  was  the  chief  willing  to 
do  in  return  ? 

XVn.— (1.)  What  did  the  chief  select?  (2.)  What  did  he  call  these  assist- 
ants? 


Early  Aristocracy.  65 

Some  of  them  he  called  heads  of  his  household,  others  captains  of 
tens  and  captains  of  hundreds,  others  judges,  and  others  keepers 
of  his  lands  or  flocks. 

XV  111. — (1.)  The  chief,  likewise,  provided  for  sons,  brothers, 
and  other  kindred,  of  his  first  favorites.  (2.)  He  bestowed  upon 
them  gifts  and  employment.  (3.)  Their  interests  became  united 
with  his. 

XIX. — (1  )  The  people  learned  to  regard  their  chief  as  the 
source  of  honors  and  dignities  in  the  commonwealth.  (2.)  An  indi- 
vidual was  considered  to  be  more  or  less  fortunate  according  as  he 
was  in  favor  with  the  king. 

XX. — (1.)  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  distinctions  of  rank 
or  honor.  (2.)  Such  distinctions  afterward  caused  certain  men  to 
be  called  noble,  and  their  class  to  be  considered  superior.  (3.)  The 
first  persons  of  notability  were  those  alone  who  represented  the 
people.  (4.)  These  persons  afterward  became  powerful  enough  to 
set  themselves  above  the  people. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  community  no  longer  thought  of  delegating  its 
own  power.  (2.)  All  classes  desired  to  represent  the  power  and 
favor  of  the  king.  (3.)  Those  nearest  to  him  were  considered  the 
highest  or  best  men.  (4.)  Every  member  of  the  community  tried 
to  win  his  approbation. 

XXII. — (1.)  The  most  numerous  division  of  the  people  remained 
poor,  and  were  obliged  to  labor  for  their  daily  bread.  (2.)  They 
continued  to  marry  only  among  themselves,  and  brought  up  their 
children  to  their  own  condition. 

XVin.— {].)  What  else  did  the  chief  do?  (2  )  How  did  he  do  this  ?  (3., 
What  is  said  of  these  persons? 

XIX. — (1.)  What  did  the  people  learn?  (2  )  How  was  an  individual  consi- 
dered ? 

XX. — (1.)  Of  what  was  this  the  beginning?  (2.)  What  did  they  cause? 
(3.)  What  were  die  first  nobles?     (4.)  What  did  these  afterward  become  ? 

XXI. — (1.)  Of  what  did  the  community  no  longer  think?  (2.)  What  did 
all  classes  desire ?  (3.)  Who  were  considered  as  the  best  men?  (4.)  For 
what  did  each  individual  try  ? 

XXII. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  most  numerous  class?  2.)  What  did  they 
continue  to  do  ? 


66  History  of  Governments. 

XXIII. — (1.)  Sons  of  the  king's  favorites,  or  supporters,  usa- 
ally  married  daughters  of  their  owu  class  and  associates.  (2.)  The 
distinctions  between  rich  and  poor  grew  wider  with  each  generation. 

XXIV. — (1.)  Individuals  who  owned  land,  or  served  tJie  king, 
or  the  altars  of  gods,  constituted  higher  or  ruling  ranks.  (2.)  Peo- 
ple  who  possessed  nothing  and  lived  by  labor,  sank  into  the  lower  or 
submissive  population. 

XXV. — (1.)  One  by  one  the  rights  of  individuals  were  ne- 
glected and  became  forgotten,  (2.)  The  people  at  large  were  no 
longer  considered  to  have  any  interest  in  government.  (3.)  They 
were  ranged  under  officers  set  over  them  by  the  higher  classes.  (4.) 
Laws  were  framed  to  protect  the  interests  of  the  landholders  and 
followers  of  the  king. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

MONARCHY,    OR    KINGLY    GOVERNMENT. 

I. — (1.)  When  a  leader  of  soldiers  was  chosen  king  over  hi3 
tribe,  he  relied  naturally  on  the  support  of  those  who  had  been  his 
comrades  in  battle.  (2.)  He  increased  the  number  of  his  military 
followers.  (3.)  Sometimes  he  hired  the  poorer  individuals  of  his 
tribe  to  become  soldiers. 

II. — (1.)  Wealthy  members  of  the  community  provided  arms, 
clothing,  and  food  for  the  king's  military  followers.  (2.)  Persons 
who  could  only  live  by  labor,  were  glad  to  become  soldiers.  (3.) 
They  were  then  supported  by  the  king  with  the  money  of  rich  men. 


XXin. — (1.)  Who  did  the  sons  of  favorites  marry?  (2.)  What  was  the 
effect  ? 

XXIV. — (1.)  Who  became  the  higher  ranks?     (2.)  Who  the  lower? 

XXV (1.)  What  is  said  of  individual  rights  ?     (2  )  What  of  the  people  at 

large  ?     (3.)  How  were  they  ranged  .'     (4.)  What  laws  were  framed  ? 

I.— (1.)  On  whom  did  a  king  rely?  (2.)  What  did  he  do?  (3.)  Who  were 
hired  to  be  soldiers? 

II. — (1.)  V.'ho  supported  the  soldiers?  (2.)  Who  vere  glad  to  become 
Boldiers  ?     (3.)  How  were  they  then  supported  ? 


Monarchy,  or  Kingly  Government.  67 

m. —  (1.)  When  an  army  was  collected,  the  king  appointed  its 
commanders.  (2.)  He  selected  these  from  bis  older  soldiers,  or 
from  the  sons  and  relations  of  wealthy  people  who  paid  the 
soldiers. 

IV". — (1.)  P'avorites  and  friends  of  the  king  were  thus  placed  in 
power  over  the  people.  (2.)  These  officials  were  answeral)le  only 
to  the  king  himself. 

V. — (1.)  When  the  army  was  led  out  to  war,  and  other  tribes 
were  conquered,  all  lands  and  wealth  taken  from  defeated  com- 
munities, become  property  of  the  victors.  (2.)  They  were  divided 
among  tiiose  persons  whose  money  supported  the  king  and  soldiers. 

VI. — (1.)  Many  captains  and  soldiers  were  also  enriched  with 
the  wealth  gained  by  warring  in  the  service  of  their  king.  (2.) 
Some  of  these  returned  to  their  own  community  with  slaves  and 
treasures,  and  became  landholders  themselves. 

VII. — (1.)  When  a  hostile  tribe  was  subdued,  the  victorious  king 
added  its  soil,  or  country,  to  that  of  his  own  tribe.  (2.)  He 
obliged  its  members  to  send  him  certain  gifts,  in  slaves  and  cattle, 
every  year,  in  token  of  their  subjection. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  king  appointed  one  of  his  friends,  or  captains, 
to  rule  over  the  subject  tribe,  as  his  lieutenant  or  representative 
(2.)  This  individual  became  governor  of  the  new  community,  and 
was  answerable  for  his  conduct  only  to  the  king  who  appointed  him. 

IX. — (1.)  Every  subject  tribe  was  placed  in  charge  of  some 
friend  of  the  king.     (2.)  Its  members  were  obliged  to  obey  the 


ni.— (l.)  Who  did  the  king  appoint?     (2.)  How  did  he  select  them? 

IV.— (1.)  Who  were  thus  placed  over  the  people?  (2.)  To  whom  were  they 
answerable  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  .'spoils  taken  in  war?  (2.)  How  were  they 
divided  ? 

VL— (1.)  Who  were  enriched  by  war?     (2.)  What  did  some  of  these  do? 

VII. — (1.)  What  was  done  with  the  country  ot  another  tribe?  (2.)  W'liat 
were  the  conquered  people  obliged  to  pay  ? 

Vm.— (1.)  What 'appointment  was  made?  (2.)  To  whom  was  such  a 
governor  answerable? 

IX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  subject  tribes?     (2.)  What  of  its  members' 


68  History  of  Governments. 

commands  imposed  upon   them   by  their  conquerors.     (3.)    Manv 
were  reduced  to  the  condition  of  household  slaves. 

X. — (1.)  By  additions  of  subject  tribes,  a  great  nation  was 
formed,  under  dominion  of  the  single  king.  (2.)  He  governed  the 
whole  through  inferior  rulers,  assisted  by  soldiers  and  priests.  (3.) 
Sometimes  one  of  the  subject  communities  grew  restless.  (4.)  Its 
members  tried  to  shake  off  the  oppressive  rule  of  strangers.  (5.) 
The  king  then  collected  an  army  fiom  other  tribes,  and  marched 
against  the  troublesome,  or  rebellious,  tribe. 

XI.— (1.)  The  authority  of  the  king  soon  came  to  be  regarded 
as  the  only  real  power  in  the  state.  (2.)  His  commands  were 
received  and  obeyed  on  all  occasions.  (3 )  He  was  considered  to  be 
the  commander  of  the  army  and  the  head  of  religion.  (4.)  He  took 
care  not  to  offend  the  priests  or  rich  men,  for  fear  of  losing  their 
support. 

XII.— (1.)  The  king's  authority  being  respected,  his  body  was 
considered  sacred.  (2.)  A  feeling  of  veneration  was  manifested 
in  connection  with  the  obedience  rendered  by  his  followers. 

XIII. — (1.)  This  veneration  was  stimulated  and  encouraged  by 
the  priests.  (2.)  They  were  the  king's  chief  supporters  and  the 
instructors  of  the  people.  (3.)  They  taught  the  community  that  its 
chief  was  under  constant  protection  of  their  gods. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  king  was  usually  admitted  to  the  priesthood 
(2.)  He   then   exercised   the  functions  of  chief  priest,  as   well  as 

(;!.)  What  did  some  of  these  become  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  was  formed  by  adding  subject  tribes  to  the  first  community? 
(2.)  How  was  such  a  nation  governed?  (3.)  What  sometimes  occurred?  (4.) 
What  did  its  members  do  ?     (5.)   What  did  the  king  do  then  ? 

XI. — (1.)  How  did  the  king's  authority  come  to  be  regarded?  (2.)  How 
were  his  commands  received?  (3)  What  was  he  considered  to  be?  (4.) 
What  care  did  he  take  ? 

XII. —  (1.)  How  was  the  king's  body  considered  ?  (2.)  What  feehng  was 
stiowu  ? 

Xm. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  this  feeling?  (2.)  What  position  did  the 
priests  hold?     (3.)   What  did  they  teach  the  community  ? 

XIV.— (1.)    To   what  was  the   king   usually  admitted?     (2.)  What  did  be 


Monarchy,  or  Kingly  Government.  69 

chief  ruler.  (3.)  He  was  looked  upon  by  all  ranks  as  the  principal 
representative  of  the  gods. 

XV. (1.)  A  feeling  of  patriotism,  or  a  love  of  country,  had  been 

cherished  by  members  of  the  democratic  community.  (2.)  That 
feeling  was  now  replaced  by  the  sentiment  of  devotion  to  a  king. 
(3.)  The  new  feeling  became  known  as  loyalty. 

XVI.— (1.)  Soldiers  and  others  were  encouraged  by  their 
oflBcers,  and  by  the  priests,  to  be  loyal  or  true  to  their  king.  (2.) 
They  were  taught  to  regard  it  an  honor  to  die  in  his  service. 

XVII.— (1.)  The  sentiment  of  loyalty  for  the  king  himself  was 
afterward  made  to  include  all  members  of  his  family.  (2.)  The 
bodies  of  all  the  king's  relatives  were  held  to  be  sacred  and  worthy 
of  respect. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  people  became  accustomed  to  believe  that 
the  king's  power  represented  the  power  of  their  gods.  (2.)  They 
were  commanded  to  receive  all  his  words  as  laws,  and  to  regard  his 
officers  as  representatives  of  supreme  authority. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  king's  eldest  sou  was  held  to  be  next  in  honor 
after  his  father.  (2)  Many  persons  regarded  him  as  the  rightful 
successor  of  his  father,  in  governing  the  nation. 

XX. — (1.)  The  ceremony  of  choosing  a  king  by  the  people,  or 
by  governors  of  tribes,  or  captains  of  the  army,  was  sometimes  con- 
tinued after  the  death  of  the  lirst  ruler.     (2.)  The  choice  usually 


then  exercise?     (3.)  How  was  he  looked  upon? 

XV. — (1.)  What  is  said  about  patriot.s7u  ?  (2.)  How  was  this  feeling 
changed?     (3.)   How  did  the  new  feeling  become  known  ? 

XVI.— (1.)  What  were  soldiers  encouraged  to  be?  (2.)  What  were 
they  taught? 

XVn. — (1.)  How  was  the  sentiment  of  loyalty  extended?  (2  )  What  ia 
said  of  the  king's  relatives? 

XVm. — (1.)  What  did  the  people  become  accustomed  to  believe?  (2.) 
What  were  tliey  commanded  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  Who  was  held  next  in  honor  after  the  king?  (2.)  What  did 
many  persons  regard  him  to  be? 

XX. —  (1.)  What  ceremony  was  sometimes  continued?  (2.)  On  whom  did 
the  choice  usually  fall  ? 


'JO  History  of  Governments. 

fell  upon  the  deceased  monarch's  eldest  son,  or  some  favorite  mem- 
ber of  the  royal  family, 

XXI. — (1.)  When  the  oflBce  of  king  descended  from  father  to 
son,  without  election,  the  royal  authority  was  hereditary.  (2.)  It 
passed  to  the  heirs  of  a  family,  in  the  manner  that  land  or  other 
property  passes  from  one  relative  to  another.  (3.)  The  succession 
of  a  family  was  termed  a  dynasty.  (4.)  The  period  during  which  a 
king  occupied  his  throne  was  called  his  reign. 

XXII. — (1.)  The  name  of  king  was  given  as  a  title  of  honor  to 
the  chief.  (2.)  Titles  of  honor  were  also  bestowed  upon  the  king's 
favorites  and  officers.  (3.)  These  titles  at  first  served  to  distinguish 
and  compliment  their  possessors.  (4.)  They  afterward  came  to  be 
regarded  as  family  distinctions.  (5.)  They  were  made  hereditary, 
and  descended  from  fathers  to  sons. 

XXIII. — (1.)  Equality  of  persons  was  no  longer  known  in  the 
community.  (2.)  Individual  independence  was  replaced  by  univer- 
sal veneration  for  one  man.  (8.)  The  common  people  of  the  nation 
were  oppressed  by  a  multitude  of  inferior  officers.  (4.)  These 
officers  derived  their  whole  power,  through  various  grades,  from  the 
king's  will  alone. 

XXIV. —  (1.)  This  was  the  political  character  of  the  most 
numerous  and  powerful  nations  of  early  history.  (2.)  The  form  of 
government  was  called  a  monarchy.  (3.)  Monarchy  means  the 
authority  of  a  single  ruler  exercised   in   a  greater  or  less  degree 


XXI. —  (1  )  When  was  the  royal  authority  hereditary?  (2.)  How  did  it 
pass  ?  (3.)  What  was  tiie  succession  of  a  family  called  ?  (4.)  What  was  the 
period  of  a  single  king's  government  called? 

XXII. — (1.)  Why  was  the  name  of  king  given  to  a  chief?  (2.)  How  were 
titles  otherwise  bestowed  ?  (3.)  What  was  the  first  design  of  these  titles? 
;4.)  How  did  they  come  to  be  regarded  ?  (5.)  What  more  is  said  about 
titles  ? 

XXm (1.)  What  was  no  longer  known?     (2.)  AVhat  is  said  of  individual 

independence  ?  (3.)  What  of  the  common  people  ?  (4.)  Whence  did  the  ofSeerd 
derive  their  whole  power? 

XXrV.— (1.)  Of  what  was  tliis  the  political  character?  (2.)  What  was  this 
form  of  government  called?     (3.)  What  is  understood  by  monarchy? 


Early  Language  of  Mankind.  7I 

^4.)  Many  great  nations  are  governed  in  this  way  at  the  present 
day. 

XXV.— (1.)  All  political  governments  may  be  comprehended 
under  three  heads.  (2.)  The  first  is  democracy,  the  power  of  the 
people.  (3 J  The  second  is  aristocracy,  tlie  power  of  classes  of  the 
people.  (4*  The  third  is  monarchy,  the  power  of  one  person  over 
the  people. 

XXVI.— (1.)  These  three  kinds  of  political  government  are 
subdivided  into  several  varieties.  (2.)  The  difference  between 
them  consists  in  the  number  of  rulers,  and  the  amount  or  character 
of  the  power  which  is  exercised. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

EARLY  LANGUAGE  OF  MANKIND. 

I. — (1.)  The  earliest  society  of  individuals  were  assisted  by  ex- 
perience and  observation.  (2.)  The  moral  education  of  each  pro- 
ceeded from  feeling  and  reasoning. 

II. — (1.)  Sensations  of  the  body  were  cau,sed  by  impressions 
upon  the  nerves.  (2.)  Mental  emotions  were  distinct  from  l)odily 
sensations. 

III. — (1.)  An  individual  either  reposed  in  solitude,  or  mingled 
with  his  kind  in  quest  of  pleasure  or  subsistence.     (2.)    He  becani 

(4.)  What  is  said  of  monarchy  in  relation  to  the  present  day  ? 

XXV. — (1.)  How  may  all  political  governments  be  comprehended?  (2.) 
What  is  the  fir.st?     (3.)  What  is  the  second?     (4.)  AVhat  is  the  third  ? 

XXVI.— (1  )  W]\at  is  said  of  these  three  kinds  of  political  government? 
(2.)    Wliat  constitutes  tlie  dift'crence  between  such  varieties. 

I. — (1.)  By  what  was  the  earliest  society  of  mankind  assisted  ?  (2.)  From 
what  did  moral  education  proceed? 

II. — (1.)  How  were  bodily  sensations  caused?  (2.)  What  were  distinct  from 
these  ? 

III.— (1.)  What  is  said, of  an  inlividual?  (2.)  Of  what  did  he  becora* 
aware  ? 


72  History  of  Governments. 

aware  of  internal  impressions,  dififerent  from  the  effects  of  sight; 
hearing,  touch,  taste,  or  smell. 

IV. — (1.)  He  grew  conscious  of  certain  natural  operations  in 
his  mind.  (2.)  He  experienced  the  emotions  of  wondering,  of  imagin- 
ing, of  hoping  and  of  fearing.  (3.)  He  began  to  reOtct  concern- 
ing uncertain  objects  and  beings. 

v. — (1.)  The  habit  of  memory  collected  a  variety  of  single 
images  in  each  individual's  mind.  (2.)  The  image  of  a  tree,  a  river, 
a  star,  became  familiar.  (3.)  He  grew  accustomed  to  compare  the 
relations  and  associations  of  one  with  another. 

VI. — (1.)  Every  sensation  conveyed  through  a  nerve  was  recog- 
nized, or  perceived,  by  a  mental  faculty.  (2.)  It  then  became  an 
idea,  such  as  the  idea  of  light  or  sound.  (3.)  The  idea  of  light  was 
perceived  through  the  visual  newe,  from  a  person's  eye.  (4.)  The 
idea  of  sound  was  recognized  through  the  aural  nerve,  from  the  ears. 
(5.)  The  idea  of  heat  or  cold  was  perceived  through  the  nerves  of 
sense  or  toiu^h,  from  any  part  of  the  body. 

VII. —  (1.)  When  a  sensation  was  ^grceii-e/i, it  became  a  perception, 
or  a  simple  idea.  (2.)  When  ic  was  reflected  upon,  it  became  a 
fixed  image  in  the  mind.  (3.)  It  was  then  called  a  fixed  or  complex 
idea.  (4.)  The  fixed  perceptions  of  pleasure,  of  pain,  of  honor, 
and  of  existence  were  all  complex  ideas. 

VIII. — (1.)  By  degrees  every  human  individual  became  possessed 
of  all  the  ideas  that  naturally  arose  out  of  sensation  and  perception. 

rv. — (1.)  Of  what  did  he  grow  conscious  ?  (2.)  What  did  he  experience? 
(3.)  What  did  he  begin  to  do  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  memory?  (2.)  What  became  familiar?  (3.)  To 
what  did  he  grow  accustomed  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  every  sensation  ?  (2.)  What  did  it  then  become  ? 
(3.)  How  was  the  idea  of  light  perceived?  (4.)  How  was  the  idea  of  sound 
recognized  ?     (5  )  How  was  the  idea  of  heat  or  cold  perceived  ? 

VII. — (1.)  What  made  a  simple  idea?  (2.)  What  took  place  when  a  simple 
idea  was  reflected  upon?  (3.)  What  was  it  then  called?  (-1.)  Give  examples 
of  complex  ideas  ? 

Vin.— (1.)  Of  what  did  every  human  individual  become  possessed? 


Early  Language  of  Mankind.  7  ^^ 

(2.)  These  related  generally  to  objects  about  bim  and  experiences 
of  his  actual  daily  life. 

IX. — (1.)  The  voice  or  tongue  of  an  individual  at  this  period 
was  used  to  express  simple  ideas  in  relation  to  objects  around 
hira.  (2.)  Speech,  or  conversation,  was  an  effort  to  exchange  re- 
flections, between  individuals.  (3.)  They  compared  ideas  concerning 
what  they  observed  and  experienced. 

X. — (1.)  Human  speech,  at  first,  consisted  of  such  vocal  sounds 
as  were  required  to  distinguish  one  object  from  another.  (2.)  One 
sound  of  the  human  voice  was  employed  to  signify  a  man  ;  another 
to  denote  animals,  and  a  third  to  distinguish  a  tree.  (3.)  Members 
of  the  first  family  received  the  names  or  sounds  which  signified  ideas 
from  their  patriarch.  (4.)  The  words  of  all  individuals,  thus 
living  together,  formed  a  common  stock  understood  by  every 
person. 

XI. — (1.)  When  emigrants  separated  from  the  family,  one  indi- 
vidual sometimes  went  westward,  and  another  eastward.  (2.)  Each 
of  these  emigrants  met  new  objects  and  experienced  new  sensations. 
(3.)  Each  emigrant  gave  different  names  to  his  new  ideas.  (4.)  The 
two  individuals  were  no  longer  able  to  compare  their  ideas  because 
thry  were  separated. 

XII. — (1.)  If  a  hundred  families  dispersed  in  various  direc- 
tions, and  each  family  met  with  some  new  animal,  each  adopted  a 
peculiar  sound,  or  word  to  denote  such  animal.  (2.)  In  this  man- 
ner one  hundred  different  words  were   invented  to  distinguish   the 

{^.)  To  what  did  these  generally  relate  ? 

IX. — (1.)  For  what  was  the  voice  or  tongue  used?  (2.)  What  is  said  of 
speech  or  conversation?     (3.)  What  did  individuals  do? 

X.— (1)  Of  what  did  human  speech  at  first  consist?  (2.)  What  is  said  con- 
cerning vocal  sounds?  '3.)  How  were  names  first  received ?  (4.)  What  did 
these  form  ? 

XI. — (1.)  What  occurred  when  emigrants  separated?  (2.)  What  did  each 
meet  and  experience  ?  (3.)  What  did  each  do  ?  (4.)  What  were  the  two  un- 
able to  do  ? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  hundred  families?  (2.)  What  would  be  the 
efifect  of  this? 

4 


74  History  of  Governments. 

same  object.    (3.)  If  the  hundred  families  had  remained  together, 
one  word  would  have  explained  the  object  to  all  of  them. 

XIII. — (1.)  The  early  separation  of  families  was  always  the 
cause  of  ditfereut  languages.  (2.)  Every  family,  in  wandering  to 
new  localities,  was  sure  to  meet  with  strange  objects  and  experience 
new  sensations.  (3.)  It  became  necessary  to  invent  new  sounds  or 
words  to  express  them  all. 

XIV.— ( 1.)  Vocal  sounds  were  invented  to  denote  lions,  serpents, 
swords,  and  the  like.  (2.)  Other  vocal  sounds  were  adopted  to  ex- 
press emotions  of  love,  of  hate,  of  admiration,  of  fear.  (3.)  In 
this  way,  every  object  met,  or  emotion  experienced,  by  any  human  in- 
dividual, received  a  name  to  distinguish  it. 

XV". — (1.)  Families  often  separated  and  grew  up  into  different 
tribes,  and  then  came  together  once  more.  (2.)  When  this  took 
place  the  various  words  in  use  by  the  scattered  tribes  became  united 
in  a  common  stock,  for  the  new  nation. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  Arabian  nation  of  the  present  day  consists  of 
many  hundred  Wiindering  tribes,  or  families,  who  mingled  and  ex- 
changed the  original  stocks  of  words.  (2.)  In  the  Arabic  language 
there  are  more  than  five  hundred  words  to  signify  a  lion,  two  hun- 
dred to  denote  a  serpent^  and  a  thousand  expressions,  or  names,  for  a 
sword. 

XVII. — (1.)  American  savage  tribes,  living  apart  from  each 
other,  used  many  hundred  different  languages.  (2.)  If  the  tribes 
had  come  together  in  one  nation,  they  would  have  had  as  many  dif- 
ferent names  for  an  arrow  as  the  Arabs  have  for  a  sword. 

(3.)  How  would  it  have  been  if  the  hundred  families  had  not  separated? 

XIII. — (1.)  What  caused  different  languages?  (2.)  With  what  did  every 
family  meet?     (3.)  What  became  necessary  ? 

XIV. — (1.)  What  were  invented?  (2.)  What  else  were  adopted?  (3.)  What 
took  place  ? 

XV.— (1.)  What  often  occurred  ?     (2.)  What  then  took  place  ? 

XVI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Arabian  nation?  (2.)  What  words  are  in 
the  Arabic  language  ? 

XVII. — (1.)  Wha'  -'s  said  of  American  tribes?  (2.)  What  is  said  regarding 
these  tribes  ? 


Early  Religion  of  Mankind.  75 

XVIII. — tl.)  The  earliest  individuals  and  communities  learned 
to  explain  by  vocal  language  whatever  they  thought  about  things 
seen  and  unseen.  (2.)  They  invented  expressions  to  describe  love, 
hatred,  cold,  sleep,  and  death,  and  other  images  of  the  mind. 

XIX. — (1.)  They  became  accustomed  to  express  the  sentiment 
of  veneration  or  worship.  (2.)  They  used  a  word  given  by  the 
first  father  to  denote  an  Invisible  Being  who  had  created  the  world. 
(^3.)  They  described  the  powers  and  qualities  of  this  Being  by  other 
vocal  sounds,  signifying  Highest,  Holy,  Lord,  Master,  and  God. 

XX. — (1.)  All  human  language  had  its  origin  in  the  first  sounds 
made  by  the  human  tongue.  (2.)  During  the  emigrations,  wander- 
ings, and  settlements  of  our  race,  words  and  forms  of  speech  con- 
tinually multiplied.  (3.)  Their  modifications  and  changes  now 
express  all  shades  of  thought  and  capacities  of  feeling. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

EARLY     RELIGION     OF     MANKIND. 

I. —  (1.)  Under  the  instruction  of  patriarchal  Misdom,  the 
earliest  human  language  was  used  tc  express  each  individual's 
devotion  to  his  Creator,  through  praise  and  prayer.  (2.)  The 
direct  continuation  of  the  patriarchal  system  preserved  in  a  single 
line  of  families  the  knowledge  and  adoration  of  One  Supreme 
God. 

II. — (1.)  After  the  first  emigrations  from  a  patriarchal  coniiuu- 

XVin. — (1.)  What  did  the  earliest  individuals  learn  to  explain  ?  (2.)  Wliat 
did  they  invent '? 

XIX {!.)  What  did  they  become  accustomed    to   express?       (2.)    What 

word  did  they  use  ?     (3.)  What  else  did  they  describe? 

XX. — (1.)  In  what  did  human  language  have  its  origin?  (2,)  How  did  it 
grow?     (3.)  What  is  said  regarding  words  and  forms  of  speech? 

I.— (1.)  For  what  was  huir.iu  language  at  first  used?  (2.)  What  did  the 
patriarchal  system  preserve  ? 

II. — (1.)    What   occuried    after    the    arst   emigrations  of  mankind  ? 


j6  History  of  Governments. 

nity,  mankind  soon  dispersed  in  various  climes,  and  wandered  under 
different  leaders.  (2.)  The  early  knowledge  of  unseen  truths  was 
lost  by  most  of  the  nomadic  tribes.  (3.)  The  greater  portion  of 
all  human  individuals  forgot  the  origin  of  their  race. 

in, — (1.)  The  vocal  words,  or  sounds,  adopted  to  signify  a 
Supreme  Being,  remained  still  in  use  among  different  tribes.  (2.) 
They  became  mingled  with  other  expressions  that  obscured  or 
contradicted  their  meaning. 

IV. — (1.)  These  other  expressions  were  first  used  by  their 
framers  to  explain  the  powers  and  excellences  of  God.  (2.)  In 
•course  of  time,  their  real  meaning  was  covered  over  with  human 
notions  and  fancies. 

V. — (1.)  The  earliest  individuals  had  given  a  name  to  the  sun, 
to  denote  its  cheering  light  and  warmth.  (2.)  They  had  given 
other  names  to  the  moon  and  stars,  to  signify  their  beauty  and  use- 
fulness in  the  night.  (3.)  They  had  bestowed  another  name  on  the 
earth,  to  describe  its  fruitful ness. 

VI. — (l.j  After  the  dispersion  of  mankind,  in  their  wanderings, 
different  families  adopted  different  names  to  denote  influences  and 
appearances  of  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  (2.)  Those  names  were 
afterward  confused  with  each  other.  (3.)  They  also  became  con- 
founded with  words  that  described  the  Supreme  Being. 

VII. — (1.)  When  expressions  grew  thus  confused,  men  endea- 
vored to  explain  their  meaning  in  various  ways.  (2.)  Some  persons 
said  that  many  superior  beings  were  described  by  words  which,  in 
realitv,  only  alluded   to    qualities   or   influences   of   one   Supreme 

Being. 


(2.)  What  early  knowledge  was  lost?     (3.)  What  was  forgotten  ? 

m.— (1.)   What  remained  in  use  ?     (2.)  What  is  said  of  these  ? 

IV.— (1.)  For  what  had  these  expressions  been  originally  used?  (2.)  What 
took  place  in  course  of  time  ' 

v.— (1.)  What  had  the  earliest  individuals  done  ?  (2.)  What  else  had  they 
done?     (3  )  What  else? 

VI. (1.)    What   occurred   after   the    dispersion    of    families?     (2.)    What 

happened  to  those  names?     (3  )   How  were  they  otherwise  confounded  ? 

VIL— (1.)  What  WHS  then  sought'     (2  )  What  did  some  say  ? 


Early  Religion  of  Mankind.  77 

VIII. —  (1.)  These  persons  tried  to  account  for  the  heavenly 
bodies,  by  imagining  that  they  were  under  the  care  of  angels  or 
inferior  gods.  (2.)  They  said  that  one  Supreme  Being  had 
appointed  several  watchers  or  guardians  of  the  world. 

IX. — (1.)  Ignorant  individuals  and  families  were  induced  to  pay 
veneration  to  the  spirits  or  gods  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  (2) 
They  prayed  to  them  to  obtain  blessings  for  mankind  from  the 
Sujjreme  Ruler.  (3.)  They  carved  images  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
stars  on  stones  to  remind  each  other  of  the  gods  that  were  said  to 
live  in  those  heavenly  bodies. 

X.— (1.)  As  time  passed,  persons  began  to  think  of  other  infla- 
ences  of  the  planets.  (2.)  They  then  fancied  new  spirits  or 
invisible  gods  having  charge  of  those  influences. 

XI.— (1.)  When  the  sun  parched  the  earth  with  its  beams, 
or  lightning  consumed  animals  and  trees,  some  persons  said  that 
the  god  of  heat  was  angry.  (2.)  They  pretended  to  regard 
fire,  lightning,  and  thunder  as  so  many  gods,  with  power  to  harm 
them. 

XII. — (1.)  There  were  always  such  individuals,  continually 
trying  to  account  for  everything  they  could  not  understand  by 
fancying  some  s[)irit  or  god  to  be  concealed  behind  it.  (2.)  Those 
individuals  were  looked  upon  by  ignorant  people  as  wiser  than  the 
rest. 

XIII. — (1.)  They  tried  to  explain  the  wind  to  be  under  charge 
of  an  invisible  god.  (2.)  They  said  that  water  was  governed  by 
another  unseen  deity.     (3  )  They  declared  that  woods  were  filled 


VIII. — (1.)  How  did  tliey  try  to  account  for  Iieaveiily  bodie;*?  (2.)  What 
did  they  say  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What  were  ignorant  people  led  to  do  ?  (2.)  For  what  did  they 
pray  ?     (3.)  What  else  did  they  do  ? 

X.— (1.)   What  occurred  as  time  passed?     (2.)  What  did  they  then  fancy  ? 

XI. — (1.)  What  did  some  persons  say  V  (2.)  What  did  these  persons  pre- 
tend to  do? 

XII. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  such  individuals?  (2.)  How  were 
those  individuals  regarded  ? 

Xm. — (1.)  What  did  they  try  to  explain?  (2.)  What  did  they  say  about 
water  ?     (3.)   What  about  woods  ? 


78  History  of  Governments. 

with    spirits.     (4.)   They  gave   names   to   hundreds   of   imaginarj 
beiog-5,  and  taught  that  all  were  to  be  revered  as  gods. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  separation  of  fanjiiies  helped  to  multiply  ideas 
about  these-  false  gods  in  the  same  way  that  names  of  visible  objects 
were  multiplied.  (2.)  Every  tribe  contained  persons  who  tried  to 
explain  unknown  things  by  their  own  fancies. 

XV. — (1.)  Another  early  practice  assisted  to  spread  false  reli- 
gion. (2.)  This  practice  was  the  use  of  symbols,  or  written 
language. 

XVI. — (1.)  When  human  individuals  lived  together,  they  made 
themselves  mutually  understood  by  their  vocal  sounds,  or  speech. 
(2.)  When  they  separated,  and  still  wished  to  communicate  with 
each  other,  they  were  obliged  to  invent  a  new  method. 

XVII. — (1.)  This  method  was  at  first  rude  and  simple,  to  carry 
out  the  purpose  of  its  users.  (2.)  A  person  communicated  the  idea 
of  a  tree,  by  carving  or  marking  the^^w-re  of  a  tree. 

XVIII. — (1.)  If  a  tree  was  to  be  cut  down,  the  figures  of  a  tree 
and  an  axe  were  marked.  (2.)  When  hunting  was  to  be  described, 
a  bow  and  arrov.s  and  some  animal  were  marked,  and  fishing  was 
expressed  by  a  net  and  fishes. 

XIX. — (1.)  When  powers  or  qualities  of  the  Supreme  Being 
were  to  be  denoted,  the  figures,  or  symbols,  were  various.  (2.)  The 
superintendence  of  God  was  described  by  the  picture  of  a  star,  or 
a  dog,  because  the  stars  shine  at  night,  and  the  dog  is  a  watchful 
animal.     (3.)  To  denote  the  superiority  of  God,  a  lion  was  painted, 

(4.)  "Wliat  else  did  they  do  ? 

XIV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  separation  of  families?  (2.)  What  did 
everv  tribe  contain  ? 

XV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  another  early  practice?     (2.)  What  was  this? 

XVI (1.)  What  would  be  done  by  farailies  living   together?     (2.)  What 

was  necessary  when  they  separated? 

XVII.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  this  method?     (2.)  What  did  a  person  do? 

XVm. — (1.)  What  denoted  cutting  down  a  tree?  (2.)  How  were  hunting 
and  fishing  described? 

XIX.— (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  Supreme  Being?  (2.)  What 
described  the  superintendence  of  God  '     (3.)  What  denoted  His  superiority? 


Early  Religion  of  Mankind.  ^9 

because  a  lion  is  the  most  powerful  of  beasts.  (4.)  To  deuoie  the 
control  of  God  over  waters,  a  fish  and  star  were  pictured.  (5.)  To 
denote  Divine  wisdom,  a  serpent  was  marked.  (6.)  Those  figures  were 
all  marked  with  another  figure  that  expressed  the  name  of  a  Supreme 
Being  ;  this  was  generally  a  circle,  because  a  circle  has  no  begin- 
ning or  end. 

XX. — (1.)  These  symbols  were  carved  or  marked  on  wood  and 
stones,  with  representations  of  sun,  moon,  lightning,  fire,  and  what- 
ever other  objects  the  people  chose  to  make.  (2.)  All  such 
objects  were  intended  to  signify  powers  and  qualities  of  a  Supreme 
Euler. 

XXI. — (1.)  In  course  of  time,  the  figures  of  images,  marked  on 
stones  or  altars,  were  confounded  with  foolish  ideas  of  gods  and 
spirits.  (2.)  Ignorant  people  forgot  that  those  figures  only 
signified  powers  and  qualities  of  One  God.  (3.)  They  began  to 
regard  each  figure,  as  the  picture,  or  likeness,  of  some  good  or  evil 
spirit. 

XXII. — (1.)  Another  form  of  idolatry  grew  up  from  the  re- 
spect which  men  felt  for  brave  hunters,  warriors,  or  patriarchs. 
(2.)  Many  persons  said  that  when  such  distinguished  men  died, 
they  were  placed  in  the  stars,  and  made  assistants  of  the  gods. 
(3.)  Some  were  supposed  to  have  charge  of  tribes  and  villages  of 
people.  (4.)  The  ignorant  raised  altars  to  those  departed  heroes. 
(5.)  Skillful  carvers  made  images  of  them,  and  the  people  oflfered 
up  prayers  to  such  images. 

XXIII. — (1.)  Figures  of  dogs,  oxen,  lizards,  snakes,  monkeys, 

(4.)  How  was  His  control  over  waters  described?  (5.)  What  described  Diviue 
wisdom?     (6.)  What  usually  described  the  Supreme  Being's  name? 

VY. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  these  symbols  ?  (2.)  What  were  they  all  intended 
to  signify  ? 

XXI. — (1.)  What  occurred  in  course  of  time  ?  (2.)  W^hat  was  forgotten? 
(3.)   How  was  every  figure  regarded? 

XXII.— (1.)  From  what  did  ano-,her  form  of  idolatry  grow  up?  (2.)  What 
was  said  of  these?  (3.)  W^hat  was  supposed  regarding  some?  (4.)  What 
did  the  ignorant  people  do  ?     (5.)  What  else  was  done  ? 

XXin. — (1.)  How  did  various  figures  come  at  length  to  be   considered? 


So  History  of  Governments, 

and  other  animals,  and  al?o  images  of  human  beings,  came  to  be  reve- 
renced as  likenesses  of  gods.  (2.)  They  were  placed  upon  altars 
to  receive  sacrifices  from  the  people.  (3.)  In  this  manner,  some 
form  of  idolatry,  or  the  worship  of  false  gods,  grew  to  be  the  reli- 
gion of  nearly  every  tribe. 

XXIV. — (1.)  Wheresoever  any  tribe  wandered,  individual 
members  of  it  carried  the  images  of  their  false  gods,  and  set  u\) 
altars  for  worship.  (2  )  Every  sort  of  foolish  and  wicked  idolatry 
was  thus  increased,  till  all  but  one  nation  abandoned  the  true  wor- 
ship of  One  God. 

XXV. — (1.)  This  single  nation  consisted  of  patriarchal  families-, 
whose  history  is  recorded  in  the  Bible.  (2.)  Idolatry  became  the 
custom  of  all  other  communities,  whether  democratic,  patriarchal, 
nomadic,  or  settled.  (3.)  Idols  were  attended,  and  false  doctrines 
taught  to  the  people,  by  numbers  of  individuals  called  wise  men,  or 
priests. 

XXVI. — (1.)  These  priests,  in  the  first  place,  were  persons  desu 
ous  of  devoting  themselves  to  objects  of  reverence.      (2.)  For  this 
purpose,  they  made  their  dwelling-places  near  the  altars  or  images 
of  stone  and  wood. 

XXVII. —  (1.)  The  common  people  gathered  around  such  per- 
sons, for  instruction  and  counsel.  (2.)  People  learned  to  look  upou 
them  as  teachers  and  ministers  of  religion.  (3.)  They  were  allowed 
to  set  themselves  apart  from  all  other  men,  and  were  considered  to 
be  chosen  ministers  of  the  god  whose  image  they  attended. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  Many  priests  were  willing  to  take  advantage 
of  respect  paid   them  by  the  people.     (2.)  Some  claimed  venera- 

i2.)  What  was  done  with  them  ?     (3.)  What  was  the  result  of  all  this  ? 

XXTV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  tribes?     (2.)  What  was  the  consequence? 

XXV. — (1.)  What  single  nation  remained  constant  to  the  true  religion? 
(2.)  What  is  said  of  idolatry  ?     (3.)  How  were  these  idols  attended? 

XXVI. — (1.)  What  were  these  priests  at  first  ?     (2.)  What  did  ilicy  do? 

XXVn. — (1.)  What  did  the  connnon  people  do?  (2.)  How  diu  people  learn 
to  regard  them  ?     (3.)  What  were  they  allowed  to  do? 

XXVUI.— (1.)  What  werf  many  priests  ready  to  do?     (2.)  What  did  some 


The  Origin  of  Nations.  8l 

tion  on  account  of  superior  goodness  and  power.  (.3.)  Othersdeclared 
themselves  specially  appointed  to  explain  the  will  of  their  gods. 

XXIX. — (1.)  Priests  pretended  to  hold  communication  with 
invisible  powers,  and  to  speak  for  them  to  the  people.  (2.)  They 
regulated  the  manner  in  which  images  should  be  worshipped,  and 
the  kind  of  offering  recpiired.  (3.)  Offerings  of  fruits,  bread,  meat 
and  wine  were  brought  to  the  priests,  for  sacrifice.  (4.)  Gifts  of 
gold,  jewels,  and  costly  goods,  were  made  to  every  altar  or  image. 

XXX. — (1.)  The  priists  were  thus  supported  by  the  people, 
and  looked  upon  as  friends  and  confidants  of  the  gods.  (2.)  A 
class  of  men  so  set  apart,  and  favored,  increased  constantly  in  num- 
bers, and  acquired  a  great  influence  in  every  community. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

THE    ORIGIN    OF    NATIONS. 

I. — (1.)  The  earliest  record  of  human  history  is  preserved  in  the 
book  called  Genesis,  in  the  Holy  Bible.  (2.)  By  this  we  learn  that 
the  first  dwellers  on  earth  were  drowned  by  a  great  flood,  in  punish- 
ment of  their  wickedness. 

II. —  (1.)  One  family  only  was  saved  from  the  general  destructioD. 
(2.)  This  was  the  family  of  Noah,  who  escaped  in  an  ark,  or  ship 
that  he  had  built  by  command  of  God. 

III. — (1.)  Noah  had  three  sons,  whose  names  were  Shem,  Ham, 

claim  ?    (3.)  What  did  others  declare  themselves  appointed  to  do? 

XXTX — (.1.)  To  what  did  these  pretend?  (2.)  What  did  they  regulate  ? 
(3.)  What  were  brought  to  the  priests?     (4.)  What  gifts  were  made? 

XXX. — (1.)  How  were  priests  supported  and  regarded?  (2.)  What  is  said 
concerning  the  class  of  priests? 

L — (1.)  Where  is  the  earliest  record  of  human  history?  (i.)  ^Tiat  do  we 
learn  by  this  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  was  saved?    (2.)  Whose  family  was  thia? 

m. — (1.)  What  were  the  names  of  tho  patriarch  IToah's  eons? 

4* 


82  History  of  Governments. 

and  Japhet.     (2.)  From  tbe5;e  three,  the  nations  of  ancient  times 
descended. 

IV. — (1.)  Several  sons  and  grandsons  of  Japhet,  the  eldest  of 
Noah's  sons,  became  leaders  of  their  families  in  various  emigrations. 
(2.)  These  families  increased  into  many  tribes,  and  founded  differ 
ent  nations  in  Europe. 

V. — (1.)  One  of  Shem's  sons  was  named  Ashur,  who  became 
leader  of  an  emigration  which  settled  the  plains  of  Soutnern  Asia. 
(2.)  He  is  supposed  to  have  founded  the  nation  called  Assyrians. 

VI. — (1.)  The  sons  of  Ham  dispersed  to  different  parts  of  the 
earth,  and  founded  many  nations  of  Asia  and  Africa,  (2.)  One  of 
these  sous  was  Mizraira,  who  settled  Egypt,  and  another  was  Canaan, 
who  settled  the  land  of  Canaan. 

VII. — (1.)  Abram,  the  father  of  two  great  nations,  was  de- 
scended from  Shem.  (2.)  He  was  a  believer  in  the  true  God,  whilst 
other  families  and  tribes  in  his  time  were  idolaters. 

VIII. — (1.)  Abram's  first  son  was  called  Ishmael,  who  founded 
the  Ishmaelitish  tribe.  (2.)  This  tribe  branched  out  into  many 
nomadic  nations,  afterward  known  as  the  Arabians. 

IX. — (1.)  Abram's  second  sou  was  called  Isaac,  the  father  of 
Jacob  the  Patriarch.  (2.)  Jacob  emigrated  into  Egypt  with  twelve 
sons,  and  founded  the  Hebrew  people. 

(2.)  Who  are  descendants  of  these  three  sons  of  Noah  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Japhet's  sons  and  grandsons?  (2.)  What  is  said 
of  their  famihes? 

V. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Ashur?  (2.)  What  nation  is  he  supposed  to  have 
founded  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  did  the  sous  of  Ham  do?  (2.)  What  two  sons  of  Ham  are 
mentioned? 

Vn.— (1.)  What  descendant  of  Shem  is  here  noticed?  (2.)  What  was 
Abram's  religion  ? 

Vm.— (1.)  Who  was  Aoram's  first  son  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  Ishmacl's 
tribe  ? 

IX.— (1.)  Who  was  Abram's  second  son?    (2.)  Where  di  J  Jacob  go? 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

HIERARCHAL     AUTHORITY, 

I. — (1.)  When  a  number  of  human  individuals,  or  tribes,  con- 
tinued in  settled  life,  their  priests  or  religious  teachers  often  became 
a  ruling  class,  (2.)  When  this  was  the  case,  they  made  regulations 
to  govern  the  people. 

II. — (1.)  Sometimes  they  selected  one  of  their  own  number  to  be 
chief  ruler,  uuderthe  name  of  king  or  high-priest.  (2.)  At  other  times 
they  appointed  some  distinguished  soldier  of  the  nation  as  chief, 
and  made  laws  to  regulate  his  conduct. 

III. — (I.)  Many  powerful  nations  in  ancient  times  were  governed 
in  this  manner,  by  a  priestly  class.  (2.)  The  members  of  such  a 
class  filled  all  the  offices  of  state.  (3.)  They  made  laws,  and  were 
the  king's  counsellorg.  (4.)  They  were  judges  and  teachers  of  the 
whole  community. 

rV. — (1.)  When  a  priesthood  appointed  the  king,  and  made 
laws,  the  form  of  government  was  known  as  a  hierurchy.  (2.)  A 
hierarchy  means  a  body  or  band  of  religious  chiefs.  (3.)  They 
could  exercise  their  influence  either  through  monarchies  or  aristo- 
cracies. 

V. — (1.)  A  hierarchy  represented  the  supreme  power  of  one  or 
more  gods.  (2.)  the  form  of  hierarchy  which  governed  the 
Hebrews,  as  recorded  in  the  Bible,  was  called  a  theocracy.  (3.)  The 
Hebrew  priesthood  represented  the  commands  of  one  Supreme  God. 

1.^1.)  What  did  priests  often  become?     (2.)  What  then  occurred  ? 

n.— (1.)  What  did  they  soiiiL"tiiiii.s  do?  (2.)  What  did  they  do  at  otlier 
iimes? 

in. — (1.)  What  is  said  about  a  priestly  class?  (2.)  What  did  itd  membera 
do?     (3.)  What  else?     (4.)  What  were  they,  in  the  community  ? 

rV. — (1.)  What  was  the  form  of  government  called  ?  (2  )  What  is  meant  by 
a  hierarchy?     (3.)  What  could  they  do? 

V. — (1.^  What  did  a  hierarchy  represent  ?  (2.)  What  form  of  hierarchy 
governed  the  Hebrews?     (.3.)  What  did  the  Hebrew  prieethood  represent? 

S3 


84  History  of  Governments. 

VI. — (1).  When  the  first  parent  exercised  patriarchal  authority 
over  his  descendants,  he  was  also  reverenced  as  their  religious 
instructor  or  priest.  (2.)  He  taught  the  members  of  his  household 
that  they  were  protected  by  one  God  v/ho  had  created  their  father 
and  mother  after  his  own  image. 

VII. — (1.)  The  patriarch  summoned  his  family  at  morning  and 
evening,  to  impress  upon  them  their  duties  toward  the  Supreme 
Being.  (2.)  He  prayed  aloud,  and  oflfered  sacrifices  in  their  pre- 
sence. (3.)  He  implored  the  blessing  of  God  upon  each  and  all  iu 
proper  undertakings, 

VIII. — (1.)  A  patriarch  was  the  mouthpiece  of  communication 
between  his  family  and  their  creator.  (2.)  He  held  the  relation  of 
priest,  or  interpreter  of  religious  knowledge  to  his  children. 

IX. — (1.)  When  the  patriarch  Noah  was  saved  with  his  family 
from  the  Flood,  that  had  drowned  all  other  persons,  he  continued  to 
esercisie  the  patriarchal  authority,  and  the  duties  of  a  priest. 
(2.)  Afterward,  the  same  authority  was  possessed  by  Abraham, 
Isaac  and  Jacob.  (3.)  The  true  religion,  or  worship  of  one  God, 
was  thus  preserved  in  a  line  of  families  governed  by  the  patriarchal 
system. 

X. — (1.)  Each  successive  head  of  the  family  was  chief  priest  of 
all  his  descendants.  (2.)  This  form  of  patriarchal  government  con- 
stituted a  hierarchal  monarchy.  (3  )  It  continued  till  the  descend- 
ants of  Abraham  were  combined  as  the  Hebrew  nation. 

VI. — (1-)  How  wa.s  the  first  parent  reverenced  ?     (2.)   What  did  he  teach  ? 

Vn. — (1.)  What  did  the  patriarch  do?  (2.)  What  further  did  he  do? 
(3.)  What  did  he  implore? 

VUL — (1.)  What  position  did  a  patriarch  occupy  ?  (2.)  What  rehition  did 
he  hold  ? 

IX. —  (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  patriarch  Noah?  (2.)  By  whom  vrns  this 
authority  afterward  possessed  ?     (3.)  What  was  thus  preserved  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  was  each  head  of  the  family?  (2.)  What  did  this  form  ol 
government  constitute?     (3.)  How  long  did  it  continue  ?  . 


HIERARCHAL  SYSTEMS  OF  GOVERNMENT. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THEOCRACY     OF     THE     HEBREWS. 

I. — (1.)  The  Hebrew  community  began  in  the  household,  or  par 
triarchal  body-politic,  of  which  Abraham  was  the  head.  (2.) 
While  Ishmael,  the  patriarch's  first  son,  became  a  chief  of  the  wan- 
dering tribe  of  the  Arabians  or  IshmaeUtes,  the  second  sou,  Isaac, 
settled  as  a  herdsman  and  agricnlturist, 

II. — (1.)  Isaac's  son,  Jacob,  left  the  land  of  the  Canaanites, 
where  Abraham  had  lived,  and  went  down  with  his  family  of  seventy 
persons,  into  Egypt.  (2.)  They  made  a  settlement,  and  each  of 
Jacob's  twelve  suns  founded  a  distinct  line  of  descendants. 

III. — (1.)  The  Hebrews  suffered  much  oppressive  treatment  from 
the  Egyptians  during  several  hundred  years.  (2.)  They  were  after- 
ward led  out  of  Egypt  by  Moses,  one  of  their  chief  men,  under 
the  direction  of  God  himself. 

IV. — (1.)  Tlie  wliole  number  of  persons  in  the  nation  when  they 
left  Egypt,  was  si.x  hundred  thousand  men  with  their  families.  (2.) 
Moses  divided  them  into  twelve  tribes,  eacii  comprising  the  descend- 
ants of  one  of  Jacob's  sons. 

I. — (1.)  Where  did  the  Hebrew  community  begin?  (2.)  What  is  said  of 
Abraham's  sons  ? 

IL — (1.)  Where  did  Isaac's  son  Jacob  go  ?     (2.)  What  was  done  there  ? 

Xn,— (1.)  What  did  the  IleVn-ows  suffer?     (2.)  What  became  of  tliom  ? 

rV. — (1.)  How  many  individuals  were  led  out  of  Egypt?  (2.)  How  were 
they  divided? 


86  History  of  Governments, 

y. — (1.)  After  leaving  Egypt,  the  Hebrews  lived  a  nomadic  life, 
wandering  from  place  to  place,  with  their  cattle  and  tents,  for  forty 
years.  (2.)  Each  tribe  had  its  camp,  and  a  chief  or  headman. 
(3.)  Moses  was  general  of  the  nation,  and  chief  judge,  deciding  dis- 
putes between  individuals,  or  between  different  tribes. 

VI. — (1.)  Moses  subdivided  each  tribe  of  the  Hebrews  int4 
thousands,  hundreds,  fifties  and  tens.  (2.)  Each  thousand  men  se- 
lected their  headman,  or  judge.  (3.)  Under  the  thousands, 
were  chosen  rulers  of  hundreds  ;  lower  still,  rulers  of  fifties,  and 
lowest,  rulers  of  tens. 

VII. — (1.)  A  ruler  of  ten  heard  simple  complaints,  where  judg 
ment  was  not  too  difficult.  (2.)  More  serious  matters  were  passed 
upon  by  higher  rulers.  (3.)  Moses  was  respected  as  chief  judge, 
and  was  considered  to  stand  between  the  nation  and  God  himself. 

VIII. — (1.)  When  the  Hebrews  went  out  to  battle,  a  military 
leader  was  appointed,  to  command  the  fighting  men  of  each  tribe. 
(2.)  Moses  selected  a  chief  captain  over  the  whole  army.  (3.)  God 
himself  was  always  thought  to  be  the  real  leader  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  their  general  was  supposed  to  be  directed  by  heaven. 

IX. — (1.)  This  mode  of  government  continued  while  the  Hebrew 
tribes  journeyed  through  wildernesses  in  a  nomadic  state.  (2.) 
The  fighting  men  of  the  nation  made  war  on  other  nations  which 
they  encountered.  (3.)  They  conquered  and  took  possession  of  a 
great  part  of  the  country  occupied  by  Canaanites. 

X. — (1.)  They  divided  this  country  among  the  tribes,  each  tak- 

V.  — (1.)  What  then  occurred  to  them?  (2.)  What  did  each  tribe  have? 
(3.)  What  was  the  position  of  Moses? 

VI. — (1.)  How  did  Moses  subdivide  the  tribes?  (2.)  What  did  each  thou- 
sand do  ?     (3.)  What  were  then  chosen  ? 

VII. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  ruler  often?  (2.)  How  were  more  serious 
matters  determined?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  Moses? 

Vin — (1.)  What  took  place  when  the  Hebrews  went  to  battle  ?  (2.)  What 
did  Moses  do  ?     (3.)  Who  was  thought  to  be  the  real  leader  of  the  Hebrews? 

IX. — (1.)  How  long  did  this  mode  of  government  last?  (2.)  What  did  the 
fighting  men  do?     (3.)  Of  what  did  they  take  possession? 

X. — (1.)  How  did  they  divide  the  ooutitry  of  the  Caiiaanite  people? 


Theocracy  of  the  Hebrews.  87 

ing  a  larger  or  a  smaller  portion,  according  to  the  number  of  Its 
families.  (2.)  Every  tribe  then  allotted  its  particular  laud  among 
its  own  families. 

XI. — (1.)  There  were  about  600,000  families  in  the  nation,  and 
the  land  was  divided  so  as  to  secure  a  farm  of  about  twenty-five 
acres  to  each  family.  (2.)  The  owner  of  such  a  farm  was  allowed 
to  lease,  but  forbidden  to  sell,  his  land. 

XII. — (1.)  While  the  Hebrews  resided  in  Egypt,  every  father,  or 
other  head  of  a  family,  acted  as  the  priest  of  his  household.  (2.) 
He  offered  up  such  prayers  and  sacrifices  as  he  considered  accept- 
able to  God. 

XIII. — (1.)  After  the  tribes  departed  from  Egypt,  God  com- 
manded Moses,  their  leader,  to  appoint  one  high-priest  for  the  whole 
nation.  (2.)  The  first  priest  appointed  was  a  brother  of  Moses, 
named  Aaron. 

XIV. — The  office  and  authority  of  the  high-priest  were  made 
hereditary,  or  descending  from  father  to  son.  (2.)  It  was  ordained 
that  no  one  should  succeed  Aaron,  as  high-priest,  unless  he  belonged 
to  Aaron's  family. 

XV. — (1.)  Forty-eight  cities  were  allotted  to  the  twelve  tribes 
in  the  country  of  Canaan.  (2.)  Each  tribe  was  represented  in  the 
nation  by  an  elder,  or  chief  man.  (3.)  The  people  in  every  city 
selected  seven  magistrates,  to  decide  their  differences. 

XVI. — {I.)  The  family  of  the  high-priest  belonged  to  a  small 

(2.)  What  was  done  by  each  tribe  with  the  land  allotted  to  it? 

XI. — (.1.)  What  is  said  of  the  division  of  land?  (2.)  What  was  the  owner 
permitted  and  forbidden  ? 

XII. — (1.)  Who  acted  as  priests  among  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt  ?  (2.)  What 
did  he  do  ? 

XIII. —  (1  )  What  was  afterward  commanded?  (2.)  Who  was  first  ap- 
pointed ? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  office  of  high-priest?  (2.)  What  was  or- 
dained ?  ♦ 

XV.— (1.)  What  is  said  about  cities?  (2.)  How  was  each  tribe  represented 
in  the  nation?     (3.)  What  did  tlie  people  of  each  city  select? 

XVI. — (1.)  To  what  chosen  tribe  was  the  high-priest  oblieed  to  belonff? 


68  History  of  Governments. 

tribe,  descended  from  Levi,  called  Levites.  (2.)  The  Levites  wert 
set  apart  as  a  holy,  or  sacerdotal  tribe,  to  furnish  the  high-priesta 
with  assistants,  in  the  service  of  God,  and  to  supply  teachers  for 
the  people. 

XVII. — (1.)  Levites  were  not  allowed  to  live  in  cities  apart 
from  other  Hebrews,  but  were  scattered  through  all  the  cities  and 
districts  of  the  commonwealth.  (2.)  Every  magistrate  was  re- 
quired to  associate  with  himself  two  Levites,  called  scribes.  (3.) 
These  scribes  acted  as  councillors,  and  explained  the  lav/s  that  gov- 
erned the  nation. 

XVIII. — (1.)  Those  laws  were  considered  to  have  come  directly 
from  God,  through  Moses,  the  first  chief  of  the  nation.  (2.)  They 
could  only  be  administered  by  the  high-priest,  and  his  subordinates, 
the  Levites. 

XIX. — (1.)  During  its  earliest  settlement  in  the  country  of  Canaan, 
the  Hebrew  nation  was  a  theocratic  aristocracy.  (2.)  The  high- 
priest  was  its  head,  as  a  representative  of  God's  government. 
(3.)  The  tribes  selected  their  own  headmen,  and  appointed  their 
own   local  magistrates. 

XX. — (1.)  The  high-priest  resided  in  the  chief  city  of  the  com- 
monwealth. (2.)  The  tribes  sent  their  elders  to  that  city,  to  act 
in  connection  with  a  number  of  Levites  selected  by  the  high-priest, 
as  a  national  senate. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  high-priest  and  senate  composed  a  chief  gov- 
erning body.  (2.)  This  body  decided  disputes  that  could  not  be 
settled  in  the  tribes  and  cities.  (3.)  It  had  power  to  make  peace 
or  call  the  tribes  to  war  on  permission  of  the  high-priest. 


(2.)  What  is  said  concerning  this  particular  tribe  of  Levites  ? 

XVII.— (1.)  Where  did  the  Levites  live?  (2.)  What  was  every  magistrate 
required  to  do?     (3.)  How  did  the  scribes  act? 

XVin.— (1  )  What  is  said  of   those  laws?      (2.)    Who  administered  the 

laws?  * 

XIX.— (1.)  When  was  the  Hebrew  nation  an  aristocracy  ?  (2  )  Who  was  a1 
its  bead  ?     (,3.)   What  part  did  the  tribes  have%i  the  government  ? 

XX.— (1.)  Where  did  the  high-priest  reside  ?     (2  )  What  did  the  tribes  do  ? 

XXI.— (1.)  How  was  the  chief  governing  body  composed  ?  (,2.)  What  ju 
risdiction  did  it  possess  ?     (3.)  What  pow  )r  did  it  have  ? 


Theocracy  of  the  Hebrews.  89 

XXII. — (1.)  God  was  always  reverenced  as  the  supreme  poli- 
ical  head  of  the  nation.  (2.)  The  senate  was  considered  to  speak 
the  will  of  heaven,  made  known  through  the  high-priest.  (3.)  All 
political  and  civil  regulations  were  made  in  agreement  with  Leviti- 
cal   or  sacred  law. 

XXIII. — (1.)  The  Levitical  law  directed  the  Hebrew  people  to 
vi.sit  tlieir  chief  city  three  times  a  year.  (2.)  Once  in  seven  years 
there  waa  a  great  festival  held  there,  called  the  Feast  of  Taberna- 
cles. (3.)  When  assembled  at  this  feast,  the  Hebrews  lived  in 
tabernacles,  or  tents, 

XXrV. — (1.)  The  sacred  laws  were  read  and  explained  to  the 
Hebrews,  by  their  high-priest,  at  the  Feast  of  Tents.  (2.)  Men, 
women  and  servants  were  commanded  to  remember  these  laws  and 
obey  them  strictly. 

XXV. — (1.)  The  Levitical  laws  were  also  taught  by  appointed 
persons,  in  every  city,  to  all  the  children.  (2.)  They  were  thought 
to  be  the  first  and  best  knowledge  for  youth  to  possess. 

XXVI. — (1.)  0)1  one  day  in  seven,  Levitical  teachers  called  the 
Hebrews  together  in  cities,  towns,  and  other  communities.  (2.)  This 
day  was  devoted  to  prayers  and  public  insiruclion,  and  became 
known  as  the  Sabbath  day. 

XXVII. — (1.)  All  sacred  festivals  were  required  to  be  held  in 
the  chief  city.  (2.)  It  was  forbidden  to  offer  sacrifice  to  God  in 
any  place  except  the  temple  in  tlie  cliief  city.     (3.)  The  whole  peo- 

XXn. — (1.)  How  was  God  regarded  by  tlie  Hebrew  nation  ?  (2  )  How  wa« 
the  senate  considered?     (o.)  What  is  said  of  all  regulations'? 

XXIII.— (1.)  What  was  directed  by  this  law?  (2.)  What  occur'-od  once 
in  seven  years?     (:3.)  What  did  the  people  live  in,  during  this  Feast  ? 

XXIV. — (.1.)  How  were  the  Hebrew  laws  explained?  (2  )  What  was  om- 
mauded  ? 

XXV. — (.1.)  How  were  the  laws  taught?  (2.)  What  were  they  thought 
to  be? 

XXVI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  one  day  in  seven?  (2.)  To  what  was  this  daj 
devoted,  and  what  was  it  called? 

XXVn.— (1.)  Where  were  sacred  festivals  held?  (2.)  What  was  for 
bidden?     (o.)  What  national  characteristics  did  the  people  possess? 


90  History  of  Governments. 

pie  possessed  one  central  city,  or  capital,  one  high-priest,  and  one 
temple.  (4.)  The  twelve  independent  tribes  were  held  thus  together, 
as  one  nation.  (5.)  Religious  laws  and  a  common  worship  of  God 
constituted  their  bond  of  union. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  The  Hebrew  theocracy,  at  this  period,  combined 
two  forms  of  government.  (2.)  These  were  the  hkrarchal,  or  priestly^ 
authority,  and  an  aristocratic  form  of  popular  power.  (3.)  The 
twelve  tribes  constituted  a  confederacy,  under  one  military  leader  and 
one  religious  head. 

XXIX. — (1.)  The  united  tribes  continued  to  choose  a  chief,  or 
general,  in  time  of  war.  (2.)  In  peace,  they  were  governed  by 
their  high-priest  and  senate.  (3.)  The  generals  were  sometimes 
made  chief  judges,  or  principal  magistrates,  on  account  of  their 
services  to  the  nation. 

XXX. — (1.)  Judges  continued  to  be  chosen  till  the  time  of 
Samuel.  (2. )  Samuel  desired  to  make  the  oflSce  hereditary,  like  that 
of  the  high-priest.  (3.)  He  divided  the  commonwealth  into  two 
districts,  each  to  bo  governed  by  one  of  his  sous. 

XXXI. — (1.)  The  sons  of  Samuel  were  corrupt  in  ofifice,  and 
sold  their  judgments  for  bribes.  (2.)  The  tribes  became  dissatisfied, 
and  demanded  a  king  to  rule  over  the  nation. 

XXXII. — (1.)  Samuel  was  not  in  favor  of  monarchical  govern- 
ment for  the  Hebrews.  (2.)  He  thought  the  commonwealth  would 
be  stronger  and  healthier  as  a  theocratic  aristocracy. 

XXXIII. — (1  )  Samuel   asked  advice  of  God,   and  was  com- 

(4.)  How  were  the  twelve  tribes  united?  (5.)  What  was  the  uniting 
bond? 

XSVm.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  theocracy  at  this  period?  (2.)  What 
were  those  forms?     (3.)  What  did  the  twelve  tribes  constitute? 

XXIX. — (1.)  What  did  the  tribes  continue  to  do?  (2.)  How  were  they 
governed  in  time  of  peace  ?     (.3.)  What  were  the  generals  sometimes  made  ? 

XXX. — (1.)  How  long  did  judges  continue  to  be  chosen?  (2.)  What  did 
Samuel  desire  ?     (3.)  What  divisions  did  he  make  ? 

XXXI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Samuel's  sons?  (2)  What  was  the  conse- 
quence ? 

XXXn.— (1.)  Of  what  was  Samuel  not  in  favor?     (2.)  What  did  he  think  ♦ 

XXX III. — (1.)  What  course  did  Samuel  pursue,  and  what  followed? 


Theocracy  of  the  Hebrews.  91 

manded  to  tell  his  countrymea  that  they  would  suflfer  greatly  under 
kings.  (2.)  He  was  directed,  at  the  same  time,  to  comply  with  the 
wish  of  the  tribes. 

XXXIV. — (1.)  He  called  a  meeting  of  seventy  elders  of  the 
people,  and  introduced  to  them  a  young  Hebrew  named  Saul. 
(2.)  This  young  man  belonged  to  a  poor  family  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin. 

XXXV.— (1.)  Samuel  directed  the  twelve  tribes  to  cast  lots,  to 
decide  from  which  tribe  the  ruler  should  be  chosen.  (2.)  The  lots 
were  drawn,  and  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  gained  the  choice.  (3.)  Al! 
the  families  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  then  cast  lots,  to 
decide  from  which  family  the  king  must  be  taken.  (4.)  The  lot  fell 
upon  a  family  called  the  Matri  family.  (5.)  All  the  male  members 
of  this  Matri  family  then  cast  lots,  to  decide  which  of  them  should 
be  king  of  Israel.  (6  )  The  lot  fell  upon  tjie  young  Hebrew  Saul, 
who  had  previously  been  named  by  Samuel,  under  direction  of 
God. 

XXXVI.— (1  •)  Samuel  gave  up  his  own  authority,  as  judge, 
into  the  hands  of  Saul.  (2.)  The  high-priest  and  senate  acknow- 
ledged Saul  as  military  chief  of  the  people.  (3.)  Saul  became  the 
first  king  of  the  Hebrews,  and  ruled  as  judge  and  commander  till 
he  was  killed  in  battle. 

XXXVII. — (1.)  At  SauFs  death,  another  Hebrew  chief  named 
David,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Jesse,  was  set  up  by  that  tribe,  as 
king.  (2.)  Saul's  son  was  afterward  killed,  and  all  the  tribes  ac- 
knowledg-ed  David  as  monarch. 


(2.)  What  further  direction  did  this  prophet  receive  from  God? 

XXXrV.— (1.)  What  did  Samuel  then  do?  ('2.)  What  is  said  of  this  young 
man? 

XXXV.— (1.)  What  did  Samuel  direct  the  tribes  to  do?  (i.)  What  tribe 
gained  the  choice  ?  (3.)  What  was  tlien  done?  (4.)  What  i'amily  was  suc- 
cessful?    (5.)   Who  ne.xt  cast  lots?     (tJ.)   On  whom  did  the  lot  fall? 

XXXVI.— (1.)  What  did  Samuel  then  do?  (2.)  What  was  done  by  the 
high-priest  and  senate  ?     (3.)  What  did  Saul  become  ? 

XXXVn.— ;1.)  What  took  place  at  Saul's  death?  (2.)  What  was  the  cou- 
sequence  ? 


c>2  History  of  Governments. 

XXXVIIL— (1.)  David  made  Jerusalem  his  chief  city,  and 
called  it  the  city  of  David.  (2.)  The  high-priest  resided  in  that 
city,  and  the  national  senate  met  there  on  important  occasions. 

XXXIX. (I.)  King  David  caused  the  Hebrew  people  to  be 

numbered  and  divided  into  three  classes.  (2.)  The  first  class  com- 
prised Levites,  the  second  citizens,  the  third  strangers.  (3.)  From 
the  class  of  strangers,  servants  and  laborers  were  taken  to  perform 
work  tor  tiie  Hebrews. 

XL. — (1.)  Six  thousand  Levites  were  selected  to  be  judges  and 
scribes.  (2.)  The  remaining  members  of  the  Levitical  tribe  were 
appointed  to  act  as  assistants  of  the  high-priest,  and  teachers  of  the 
people. 

XLI. — (1.)  The  army  of  the  tribes  was  organized  in  twelve 
divisions,  and  a  captain  was  set  over  each.  (2.)  The  principal  men 
of  the  Hebrews  were  selected  to  be  rulers  over  cities  and  villages, 
collectors  of  revenue,  and  other  officers. 

XLII. — (1.)  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  made  alliances  with 
many  powerful  kingdoms.  (2.)  David  and  Solomon  extended  their 
ov»u  territories  by  making  war  on  neighboring  nations.  (3.)  The 
simplicity  of  the  commonwealth  gave  way  to  luxury  and  pride. 
(4.)  Captives  taken  in  war  were  reduced  to  servitude.  (5,;  Subject 
nations  were  made  to  pay  tribute,  or  were  cruelly  treated. 

XIjIII. — (1  )  When  Solomon  died,  a  civil  war  broke  out,  and 
the  nation  was  split  into  two  kingdoms.     (2.)  Two  tribes  continued 

XXXVm.— (1.)  What  did  David  do?     (2.)  Wliat  is  said  of  that  city? 

ygVTy. — (1.)  What  was  done  with  the  Hebrew  people  ?  (2.)  What  did 
each  of  the  three  classes  comprise?  (3  )  What  were  taken  from  the  class  of 
strangers  ? 

XIj. — (1.)  Who  were  made  judges  and  scribes?  (2.)  What  became  of  the 
remaining  Levites? 

XLI.— (1.)  How  was  the  army  organized?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  principal 
3ien? 

XLIL— (1.)  What  did  Solomon  do?  (2.)  How  were  the  Hebrew  territoriea 
3xtended?  (3.)  What  was  the  consequence  ?  (4.)  What  was  done  with  cap- 
tives?    (5.)  How  were  subject  nations  treated? 

VT.TTT— (1  )  What  took  place  when  Solomon  died?  (2.)  What  is  said  of 
:,wo  tribes  ? 


Theocracy  of  the  Hebrews. 


93 


to  be  governed  l)y  Solomon's  descendants.  (S.)  The  other  ten 
tribes  chose  another  king.  (4.)  The  Hebrew  people  tlien  formed 
two  separate  theocratic  states.  (5.)  The  two  tribes  became  known 
as  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  the  ten  tribes  composed  the  king- 
dom of  Israel. 

XLIV. — (1.)  The  kingdom  of  Israel  continued  to  exist  as  a 
theocratic  monarchy  under  the  reigns  of  nineteen  monarchs.  (2.)  It 
was  at  iast  conquered  by  the  Assyrians,  and  its  ten  tribes  were 
carried  as  captives  beyond  the  borders  of  Syria.  (3.)  The  kingdom 
of  Judah  remained  a  theocracy  under  the  rule  of  twenty  monarchs. 
(4  )  It  was  at  last  overwhelmed  by  enemies,  and  its  two  tribes  car- 
ried into  captivity  by  the  Assyrians. 

XLV. — (1.)  A  Hebrew  theocracy  existed,  whenever  the  people, 
as  a  nation,  obeyed  the  Levitical  or  sacred  law.  (2.)  Under  thi.s 
law,  the  high-priest  and  senate  directed  either  the  kingly  or  aristo- 
cratic government.  (3.)  When  wicked  kings  were  allowed  to  usurp 
power,  the  sacred  laws  and  commands  of  God  were  disregarded. 
(4.)  God  then  permitted  the  nation  to  become  weak  and  distracted 
through  foreign  wars  and  domestic  disorder. 

XLVI. — (1.)  AVhen  the  kingdom  of  Judah  was  overthrown  by 
the  Assyrians,  the  principal  Hebrews  were  carried  away  captive 
to  Babylon,  with  their  families.  (2.)  There  they  remained  scat- 
tered, during  seventy  years.  (3.)  They  were  then  released,  and 
allowed  to  rebuild  their  city  atid  temple. 

XIjVII. — (1.)  After  the  captivity,  public  affairs  were  conducted 

(3.)  What  of  the  other  ten  ?  (4.)  What  did  the  Hebrews  then  form  ?  (.5.)  How 
were  the  separate  states  known  ? 

XLiTV — (1.)  How  long  did  the  theocratic  monarchy  of  I.srael  iast?  (2.) 
What  tooif  place  at  last?  (3.)  How  long  did  the  theocracy  of  Judah  exist? 
(4.)  How  was  it  ended  ? 

XLV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Hebrew  theocracy  ?  {•!.)  What  body  directed 
government  under  this  law?  (3.)  What  took  place  under  wicked  kings? 
(4.)  What  did  God  then  permit? 

XLVI.  — (1.)  What  occurred  when  the  kingdom  of  Judah  was  overthrown  ? 
(2.)  How  long  did  these  families  remain  in  captivity  ?  (3.)  What  then  became 
of  them  ? 

XLVn.— (1.)  How   were  the  Hebrews  governed  after  their  return  from 


94  History  ot  Goverhments. 

by  a  succession  of  high-priests,  assisted  by  military  governors,  nntil 
the  death  of  Hyrcanus,  the  last  of  tlie  priestliood.  (2.)  The  real 
theocracy  ended  with  Hyrcanus,  and  all  power  fell  into  the  hands 
of  rival  chiefs,  who  contended  against  each  other.  (3.)  Some  of 
these  styled  themselves  kings,  and  others  priests,  but  most  of  them 
were  oppressors  of  the  nation.  (4.)  At  last  all  political  power 
passed  away  from  the  Hebrews,  and  their  country  became  a  pro- 
vince of  the  Roman  empire. 

XLiVIII. — (1.)  The  Hebrews  were  driven  away  by  foreigners 
from  their  own  territory.  (2.)  They  became  a  scattered  people, 
and  so  remain  at  the  present  day.  (3.)  They  still  regard  the 
Levitical  laws  as  their  rehgious  rule,  but  submit  to  the  civil  govern- 
ment and  laws  of  any  country  in  which  they  live. 

XIjIX. — (1.)  The  history  of  Hebrew  theocracy  shows  how  a 
nation  prospered  when  obedient  to  the  laws  of  God.  (2.)  The 
troubles  and  final  dispersion  of  the  nation  resulted  from  the  wicked- 
ness of  rulers  and  strifes  among  the  people. 

captivity?  (2.)  When  did  the  real  theocracy  end,  and  what  government 
succeeded?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  these  rulers?  (4.)  What  was  the  fate  of 
Judah  ? 

XLVm — (1.)  What  became  of  the  Hebrews?  (2.)  What  befell  their? 
(3.)  How  are  they  now  governed  ? 

XLIX. — (1.)  What  does  Hebrew  history  show?  (2.)  What  is  remarked 
concerning  the  nation  ? 


CHAPTER  II. 


THE    ETHIOPIAN    HIERARCHY. 


I, — (1.)  The  ancient  people  known  as  Ethiopians,  inhabited 
plains  and  mountains  of  Africa,  above  the  land  of  Egypt.  (2.) 
They  were  divided  into  fighting  tribes,  pastoral  tribes,  hunting  tribes, 
and  people  dwelling  in  towns. 

II. —  (1.)  The  nation  of  Nubians  lived  nearest  to  the  Egyptians, 
and  possessed  a  religion  resembling  theirs.  (2.)  They  were  a 
settled  people  under  dominion  of  the  Egyptians.  (3.)  The  civilized 
Ethiopians  dwelt  above  the  Nubians,  on  banks  and  islands  of  the 
Nile.  (4.)  They  inhabited  cities  and  towns,  and  were  governed  by 
a  king  and  queen.  (5.)  They  were  divided  into  priests,  merchants, 
farmers,  artisans,  and  slaves. 

III. — (1.)  The  civilized  Ethiopians  were  known  as  the  people 
of  Meroe.  (2.)  Their  chief  city  was  the  head-quarters  of  traffic 
with  Arabians  and  wild  tribes  of  Africa.  (3.)  Their  merchants 
travelled  into  the  deserts  and  mountains  to  trade  with  savage 
nations.  (4.)  Caravans  of  Arabs  and  other  roving  people  visited 
the  markets  of  Meroe  to  sell  their  goods,  animals,  and  slaves. 

IV. — (1.)  The  government  of  Meroe  was  hierarchal.  (2.) 
The  priesthood  formed  a  ruling  tribe,  and  selected  from  their  own 
members  the  king.     (3.)  They  pretended  to  do  this  under  direction 


I.— (1.)  Where  did  the  ancient  Ethiopians  live?  (2.)  How  were  they 
divided? 

II.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Nubians?  (2.)  Under  what  government  did 
they  hve  y  (3.)  Who  dwelt  above  the  Nubians  ?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  them  ? 
(5.)  How  were  they  divided? 

m.— (1.)  How  were  the  civiUzed  Ethiopians  known?  (2.)  What  was  their 
chief  city?  (3.)  What  did  their  merchants  do  ?  (4.)  What  strangers  visited 
Meroe  ? 

IV — (1.)  What  form  of  government  had  Meroe?  (2.)  What  did  the  priest 
hood  form'     (3.)  What  did  they  pretend  regarding  the  choice  of  king? 

05 


96  History  of  Governments. 

of  their  chief  god.  (4.)  They  asserted  that  the  monarch  stood  in 
place  of  a  god  over  the  people. 

V. — (1.)  The  king  was  highly  venerated,  but  his  power  waa 
regulated  by  ancient  laws  made  by  the  priests.  (2.)  He  was  not 
allowed  to  reward  or  punish  any  subject  without  consulting  the 
chief  priests.  (3.)  When  any  criminal  was  judged  deserving  of 
death,  an  officer  of  the  priests  was  sent  to  him  with  a  command  to 
kill  himself.  (4.)  It  was  considered  disgraceful  to  disobey  such  a 
command. 

VI. — (1.)  When  the  priests  thought  that  a  king  had  reigned 
long  enough,  they  sent  a  messenger  with  an  order  for  him  to  die,  by 
direction  of  the  gods.  (2.)  It  was  then  the  king's  duty  to  put 
himself  to  death  with  his  own  hands. 

VII.— (1.)  The  Ethiopian  state  of  Meroe  contained  a  military 
force  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  soldiers.  (2.)  Its  populn- 
tion  comprised  a  half  million  of  merchants  and  artisans. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  hierarchy  of  Meroe  extended  its  dominion  over 
many  tribes  and  small  nations  beyond  its  settled  limits.  (2.)  The 
bonds  connecting  these  different  people  were  those  of  religion  and 
traffic.  (3.)  Members  of  different  tribes  came  from  distant  places 
to  worship  in  the  temples  of  Meroe.  (4.)  They  brought  productions 
of  their  countries  to  sell  in  the  market  of  the  city.  (5.)  These  tribes 
were  composed  of  independent  families,  like  African  tribes  of  the 
present  day. 

IX. — (1.)  Savage  tribes  living  near  the  sea-shore  were  fisher- 
men.    (2.)  Those   who  inhabited  grassy  valleys  and  plains  were 

(4.)  What  did  the  Ethiopian  priests  teach  ? 

v.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  king?  (2.)  What  was  he  not  allowed  to  do? 
(8.)  What  is  said  of  criminals  ?     (4.)  What  was  considered  disgraceful  ? 

VI. — (1.)  How  was  a  king  removed?     (2.)  What  was  then  the  king's  duty? 

Vn. — (1.)  How  largj  an  army  had  Meroe?  (2.)  What  did  its  population 
comprise  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  How  was  the  priestly  dominion  extended?  (2.)  What  bonds 
connected  all  these  people  ?  (3.)  For  what  did  members  of  tribes  come 
to  Meroe?  (4.)  For  what  other  purpose?  (5.)  How  were  those  tribes 
composed  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What  were  tribes  near  the  sea-shore  ?     (2.)  What  were  those  on 


The  Ethiopian  Hierarchy.  f^ 

herdsmen.  (3.)  Those  who  roamed  in  the  forests  were  hunters. 
(4.)  Those  who  lived  near  the  rivers  were  more  settled,  and  culti- 
vated the  earth. 

X. — (1.)  The  military  ranks  of  Meroe  were  originally  Egyptian 
soldiers.  (2.)  They  emigrated  in  a  large  array  from  their  own 
country,  and  obtained  a  grant  of  land  from  the  Ethiopian  priest- 
hood.  (3.)  They  elected  their  own  generals,  but  were  subordinate 
to  the  hierarchy  of  Meroe. 

XI. — (1.)  The  priests  of  Meroe  exercised  great  influence  by 
pretending  that  they  heard  the  voices  of  their  gods  in  the  temples. 
(2.)  These  pretended  voices  were  called  oracles.  (3.)  Colonies  of 
priests  were  often  sent  out  to  make  settlements  among  distant  tribes. 
(4.)  Wherever  they  settled  they  set  up  altars  and  were  supported 
by  the  people. 

Xn.— (1.)  The  Ethiopian  priests  were  at  first  worshippers  of 
the  sun,  moon  and  stars.  (2.)  They  represented  a  star  by  the  pic- 
ture of  a  dog,  to  denote  its  watchfulness  over  the  world.  (3.)  The 
sun  and  moon  were  represented  by  other  figures  or  emblems. 

XIII. — (1.)  The  first  priests  came  from  mountainous  regions, 
and  were  of  light  color.  (2.)  They  descended  to  the  plains  and 
valleys,  where  dark-complexioned  tribes  roved,  and  taught  them 
religion  and  trade. 

XrV.— (1.)  They  first  set  up  stones  or  altars,  to  denote  that  the 
gods  lived  in  high  places.      (2.)   Superstitious   people,  of  various 


the  plains?  (a.)  What  were  the  forest  tribes?  (4.)  What  tribes  formed 
settled  communities  ? 

X.— (1.)  What  were  the  soldiers  of  Meroe?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  them? 
(3.)  What  did  they  elect? 

XL— (1.)  How  did  the  priests  exercise  inf  uence  ?  (2.)  What  were  these 
pretended  voices  called  ?  (3.)  What  other  means  did  the  hierarchy  adopt,  to 
extend  their  power  ?     (4.)  What  is  said  of  these  colonies  ? 

xn.— (1.)  What  did  the  Ethiopian  priests  first  worship  ?  (2.)  How  did  they 
represent  a  star?     (S.'l  How  did  they  represent  the  sun  and  moon? 

Xm.— (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  first  priests?     (2.)  What  did  they 

do? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  did  they  first  set  up?     (2.)  What  did  the  people   do? 

6 


98  History  of  Governments. 

tribes,  came  from  different  parts,  to  bring  gifts  to  the  priests.  {S.) 
Members  of  distant  tribes  grew  acquainted  with  each  other,  and  ex- 
changed their  presents.  (4.)  This  was  a  beginning  of  trade  or 
commerce.  (5.)  As  it  extended,  the  priestly  settlements  grew  more 
numerous,  and  a  town  was  built. 

XV. — (1.)  Persons  who  resembled  the  priests  in  color  were 
made  their  assistants  and  first  favorites.  (2.)  Those  of  darker  com- 
plexion came  to  be  regarded  as  inferior.  (3.)  Tribes  of  different 
complexions  were  afterward  placed  in  distinct  classes. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  priests  extended  their  authority,  and  combined 
several  tribes  into  a  nation.  (2.)  They  were  able  to  establish  hier- 
arehal  government  in  Meroe,  Egypt  and  other  countries. 

XVII. — (1.)  At  the  present  day  there  exist  remains  of  the 
ancient  hierarchy,  as  established  in  Meroe.  (2.)  A  modern  African 
state  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  one,  and  is  governed  by  a  high 
pontiff,  or  prince-priest.  (3.)  Under  this  monarch  the  priests  act  as 
teachers  and  magistrates.  (4.)  The  tribe  is  engaged  in  commerce, 
and  its  merchants  travel  in  caravans  to  Arabia  and  through  the 
African  desert.  (5.)  Priests  travel  with  the  caravans,  and  are 
venerated  by  all  the  rude  tribes. 

XVIII. —  (1.)  Priests  were  the  civilizers  of  many  early  nations. 
(2  )  They  planted  colonies,  which  grew  up  to  be  flourishing  states. 
f3.)  Meroe  and  Ammoneuni  in  Ethiopia,  and  Memphis,  Thebes  and 
Heliopolis,  in  Egypt,  arose  from  the  erection  of  a  single  altar. 

XIX. — (1.)    In  such  states  the  greater  numbers  were  usually 

(3.)  What  followed  this?     (4.)  Of  what  was  this  a  beginning?     (5.)  What 

was  the  effect? 

XV. — (1.)  Who  were  made  the  first  favorites?  (2.)  Who  were  regarded  as 
inferior  ?     (Z.)  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  distinction  ? 

XVI. — (1)  What  did  the  priests  accomplish?  (2.)  What  were  they  able 
to  do? 

XVn. — (1.)  What  exist  at  the  present  day  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  a  modern 
state?  (3.)  How  do  the  priests  act  in  this  hierarchy?  (4.)  How  is  the  tribe 
engaged  ?     (.5.)   Who  accompany  the  caravans  ? 

XVin. — (1.)  What  is  remarked  concerning  priests?  (2.)  What  did  they 
do?     (3.)  What  flourishing  cities  were  founded  by  colonies  of  priests? 

XIX. — (1.)  What  if  said  of  S'loh  states  as  are  here  mentioned? 


The  Egyptian  Hierarchy.  99 

oppressed  by  the  smaller  class.  (2.)  False  relig-ion  made  the  people 
superstitious  (3.)  The  ruliug  classes  of  priests  and  soldiers  reduced 
all  working  people  to  the  condition  of  slaves. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE    EGYPTIAN    HIERARCHY. 


I. — (1.)  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Egypt  were  descendants  of 
Mizraim,  one  of  the  grandsons  of  Noah.  (2.)  They  lived  in  huts 
made  of  reeds,  and  were  clothed  with  garments  woven  from  grasses 
of  the  Nile.  (3.)  They  subsisted  on  fish,  and  fruits  that  grew  from 
the  soil  without  culture. 

II. — (1.)  Improvement  in  the  condition  of  these  savage  people 
was  brought  about  by  degrees,  (2.)  The  priests  who  had  taught 
the  worship  of  planets  in  Ethiopia,  descended  to  the  land  of  Egypt. 
(3.)  They  planted  colonies  among  the  people,  and  taught  them  tc 
raise  altars  and  dwell  in  villages. 

III. — (1.)  The  different  tribes  of  Egypt  learned  to  till  the  ground, 
to  make  canals,  and  to  build  houses  and  walls.  (2.)  The  priests 
divided  them  into  classes,  and  gave  them  various  occupations.  (3.) 
These  occupations  were  such  as  could  be  followed  best  in  the  places 
which  they  inhabited. 

IV. — (1.)    The   priests,   and  those   who  came   with   them   inU. 

(2.)  What  was  the  effect  of  false  religion?  (3.)  What  did  the  ruling  classes 
do? 

L — (1.)  Who  were  tlie  earliest  inhabitants  of  Egypt?  (2.)  What  was  their 
mode  of  life  ?     (3.)  On  what  did  they  subsist? 

n. — (1.)  How  were  improvements  brought  about?  (2.)  Who  came  ia 
Egypt?     (3.)   What  did  these  priests  do? 

nL — (1.)  What  did  the  tribes  learn?  (2.)  How  were  they  divided  by  ti:e 
priests?     (8.)   What  were  their  occupations? 

TV. —  fl.)   What  did  the  priests  and  their  adherents  now  form? 


lOO  History  of  Go sernments. 

Egypt,  continued  to  form  an  exclusive  tribe,  or  class,  called  a  caste. 
(2.)  They  selected  the  most  intelligent  and  courageous  Egyptian 
tribes  to  be  next  to  them  in  rank.  (3.)  They  raised  from  these  tribes 
a  class,  or  caste,  of  soldiers,  and  made  them  defenders  of  the  rest. 

v. — (1.)  The  priests  and  soldiers  became  tlie  superior  classes. 
(2.)  All  otlier  tribes  were  made  working  people.  (3.)  These  last 
were  subdivided  into  cultivators,  fishermen,  merchants,  artisans, 
laborers  and  herdsmen. 

VI. — (1.)  When  the  priests  became  powerful,  they  divided  the 
whole  land  of  Egypt  into  districts.  (2.)  They  settled  a  cclony  of 
priests  in  every  district,  to  oversee  and  instruct  the  native  people, 
(3.)  Each  of  these  priestly  colonies  established  a  temple,  and  made 
the  superstitious  people  worshippers  of  their  gods.  (4.)  They  pre- 
tended that  those  gods  were  dwellers  in  the  planets. 

VII. — (1.)  The  original  rude  tribes  of  Egypt  grew  accus^tomed 
to  look  upon  the  priests  and  their  teachings  as  sacred.  (2.)  By 
this  means  a  union  was  brought  about  among  tribes  that  were  pre- 
viously at  war  with  each  other. 

VIII. — (1.)  A  combination,  which  afterward  expanded  into  a 
great  nation,  was  thus  made  by  the  priesthood.  (2.)  Several  cities 
were  built,  and  a  numerous  population  settled  around  each  of  them. 
(3.)  A  majority  of  the  nation  labored  with  their  hands,  whilst  the 
soldier  tribe  defended  their  cities  against  neighboring  savages. 

IX. (1.)  Many  savage  tribes  roamed  in  the  wildernesses  around 

Egypt,  and  years  elapsed  before  they  were  subdued.    (2.)  At  length 


(2.)  What  selection  did  they  make?     (3.)  What  did  they  raise? 

v.— (1.)  Who  became  the  superior  classes?  (2.)  What  were  all  other 
classes?     (3.)   How  were  the  last  subdivided? 

VI.— (1.)  How  did  the  priests  divide  Egypt?  (2  )  What  did  they  settle  ia 
each  district?  (8.)  What  is  said  of  these  colonies?  (4.)  What  did  they  pro- 
tend concerning  the  gods  ? 

Vn. U-)  What  is  said  of  the  original  tribes?     (2.)   What  was  the  result 

of  this? 

Vm.— (1.)  What  combination  was  made?  (2.)  What  followed?  fS.)  What 
was  the  condition  of  the  people  ? 

IX.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  savage  tribes?     (2.)   What  took  place  at  length? 


The  Egyptian  Hierarchy.  loi 

the  states  of  Egypt  became  strongly  established,  and  were  cousoli- 
dated  as  a  nation  under  the  hierarchy. 

X. — (1.)  The  priestly  caste  chose  a  king  from  the  soldier  tribe, 
and  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  nation.  (2.)  They  associated 
with  him  a  high-priest,  whose  sons  were  made  his  attendants  and 
counsellors.  (3.)  The  power  of  the  king  was  restricted  by  the 
influence  of  his  associate  priests. 

XI. — (1.)  The  native  people  of  Egypt  at  first*owiied  the  land 
which  they  cultivated.  (2.)  Afterward  the  priests  and  kings  ob- 
tained possession  of  it  by  purchase.  (3.)  They  rented  it  out  to 
farmers,  and  received  an  annual  portion  of  the  produce. 

XII. — (1.)  The  priestly  caste  used  their  oracles,  or  divine  voices, 
as  means  of  governing  the  people.  (2.)  They  pretended  that  these 
voices  delivered  laws  from  the  gods. 

XIII. — (1.)  Wherever  a  settlement  of  priests  was  made,  a  por- 
tion of  the  laud  was  set  apart  as  their  property.  (2.)  They  rented 
this  laud  to  farmers,  and  obtained  their  living  from  its  proceeds.  (3.) 
Priests  were  judges,  physicians,  lecturers,  architects,  and  practi- 
tioners of  all  arts  and  sciences  then  known, 

XIV. —  (1.)  Every  district  had  its  principal  temple,  and  the 
idols  there  kept  were  considered  gods  of  the  district.  (2.)  The 
Egyptian  people  and  strangers  from  abroad  brought  oflerings  of 
various  kinds  to  these  temples,  to  obtain  the  favor  of  the  priest- 
hood. 

XV. — (1.)  The  priesthood  became  the  highest  and  wealthiest 

X.— (1.)  What  chief  ruler  was  constituted  V  (2.)  Who  was  associated  with 
the  king?     (3.)   How  was  his  power  restricted? 

XL— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  land  in  Egypt?  (2.)  What  afterward  occurred? 
(3.)  What  did  the  priests  do  with  the  land? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  oracles?     (2.)  What  did  the  priests  pretend  ? 

XnL— (1.)  What  was  done  iu  every  colony  of  priests?  (2.)  What  was  done 
with  such  land?     (3.)  What  were  the  occupations  of  priests  ? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  did  each  district  po.ssess?  (2.)  What  were  brou<;ht  tc 
these  temples  ? 

XV.— (1.)   What  did  the  priesthood  of  the  Egyptian  nation  become  ? 


102  History  of  Governments. 

caste  of  the  Egyptian  nation.    (2.)  Its  members  filled   civil  offices 
and  carried  on  the  most  lucrative  branches  of  business. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  warriors,  or  soldier  caste  of  Egypt,  were  next  ia 
dignity.  (2.)  This  caste  was  divided  in  two  classes,  under  the 
names  of  Hermotyhi  and  Calasari.  (3.)  The  first  class  numbered 
100,000,  and  the  second  250,000  men. 

XVII, — (1.)  The  monarchs  of  Egypt  were  always  appointed 
from  the  soldier.caste.  (2.)  The  king  was  commander-in-chief  of 
Egyptian  warriors.  (3.)  His  power  in  time  of  peace  was  restricted 
by  the  religions  law  taught  by  the  priesthood. 

XVIII. — (1.)    The   soldier  caste  was  wealthy,  owning  large 

landed  estates,  like  the  priestly  caste.  (2.)  Every  soldier  possessed 
twelve  acres  of  land,  which  he  rented  to  cultivators.  (3.)  One 
thousand  warriors  from  the  Hermotybi,  and  one  thousand  from  the 
Calasari,  were  appointed  every  year,  to  be  the  king's  bodyguard. 
(4.;  They  were  allowed  regular  rations  of  bread,  meat  and  drink. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  soldier  caste  was  not  scattered  through  the 
different  districts  of  Egypt,  like  the  priestly  caste.  (2.)  Its  mem- 
bers lived  in  villages  throughout  a  particular  district,  where  land 
was  divided  for  them.  (3.)  They  left  this  district  of  their  residence 
only  in  seasons  of  service, 

XX. — (1.)  The  most  considerable  of  the  inferior  Egyptian  castes 
was  that  of  the  trading  citizens.     (2.)   It  comprised  merchants, 

(2.)   What  is  said  of  the  members  of  this  priesthood  ? 

XVL — (1.)  What  caste  was  second  in  Egypt?  (2.)  How  was  it  divided? 
(3.)  What  were  its  numbers? 

XVn. —  (1.)  From  what  caste  were  Egyptian  monarchs  always  appointed? 
(2.)  What  military  ranii  did  the  king  hold?  (3)  How  was  his  civil  power 
restricted  ? 

XVm.  — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  soldier  caste?  (2.)  What  did 
each  soldier  possess  ?  (3)  What  constituted  the  king's  guard?  (4.)  What 
were  allowed  to  these  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  In  what  respect  did  the  priestly  and  warrior  castes  d'ifer  ? 
(?,.)  Where  did  members  of  the  latter  reside  ?  (3.)  When  did  they  leave  this 
district? 

XX.— n.^  What  was  the  most  respectable  of  the  =nferior  castes  ?    (2.)  What 


The  Eg}'ptiaa  Hierarchy.  103 

artists,  mechanics  and  farmers.     (3.)  The  sons  of  each  individaal 
were  usually  instructed  to  follow  the  occupation  of  thtir  father. 

XXI. — (1.)  Another  Egyptian  caste  was  composed  of  persons 
known  as  Navigators.  (2.)  These  were  persons  who  dwelt  on  or 
near  the  river  Nile  and  the  various  canals  intt  rsecting  the  country. 
(3.)  They  comprised  the  boatmen,  fishermen,  dyke  builders,  and 
ditchers  of  the  land. 

XXII. — (1.)  Another  caste  of  the  Egyptians  was  known  as  that 
of  Interpreters  or  Brokers.  (2.)  These  were  strangers,  who  inter- 
married with  the  natives.  (8.)  They  instructed  their  children  to 
speak  Egyptian  and  foreign  tongues. 

XXIII. — (1.)  The  caste  of  herdsmen  comprehended  the 
native  pastoral  tribes  who  had  charge  of  cattle  and  flocks.  (2.) 
Some  of  these  kept  their  herds  in  fields  and  pastures.  (3.)  Others 
were  nomads,  who  wandered  through  the  wilderness  that  bordered 
Egypt.  (4.)  The  swineherds  were  the  lowest  inhabitants  of 
Egypt,  and  consisted  of  a  native  tribe  not  allowed  to  enter  towns 
or  temples. 

XXIV. (1.)  The  priests  possessed  all  sacred   and   historical 

writings  of  the  Egyptians.  (2.)  They  explained  the  laws  and 
ordained  religious  ceremonies.  (3.)  Their  laws  imposed  strict  rules 
of  life  upon  the  kings. 

XXV. — (1.)  The  king's  daily  duties  of  all  kinds  were  fixed 
by  law.  (2.)  Certain  hours  were  specified  for  his  sacrifices,  his 
meals,   his  amusements,   his  studies,  and  his  sleep.     (3.)   He   was 

did  this  caste  comprise  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  sons  of  individuals  ? 

XXI.— (1.)  What  composed  another  caste?  (2.)  Who  were  these?  (3., 
What  did  they  comprise? 

XXn. (1.)  How  was  another  caste  known?    (2.)  Who  composed  this  class  ? 

(.3.)    How  did  they  instruct  their  children  ? 

XXm.— (1.)  What  did  the  caste  of  herdsmen  comprehend?  (2.)  How  did 
some  of  these  tribes  keep  their  herds?  (3.)  Wliat  were  others?  (4.)  What 
were  the  swineherds  ? 

XXIV.— (1.)  What  did  the  priests  possess?  (2.)  What  did  they  do? 
3.)  What  did  these  hiws  impose  ? 

XXV.— (1.)  What  were  fixed  by  law?  (2.)  What  were  specified?  (8.) 
What  was  the  kinj?  forbidden? 


104  History  of  Governments. 

forbidden  to  order  puuishments  except  in  accordance  with  prescribed 
customs. 

XXVI. — (1.)  The  priests  understood  astronomy,  and  pre- 
tended to  interpret  dreams,  or  foretell  future  events,  by  reading  the 
stars.  (2.)  They  exercised  great  influence,  in  this  way,  over  a 
superstitious  multitude.  (3.)  The  king  was  not  permitted  to  com- 
mence any  undertaking  without  the  sanction  of  oracles  in  the 
temples.  (4.)  The  lowest  Egyptians  were  accustomed  to  ask 
advice  from  their  nearest  priest  on  every  important  occasion. 

XXVII. — (1.)  All  civil  officers  employed  to  keep  records, 
collect  revenues,  or  expend  moneys,  were  required  to  be  priests.  (2.) 
The  judges  and  pleaders  before  tribunals,  were  appointed  from  the 
sacerdotal  caste.  (3.)  Magistrates  in  every  city  and  village  were 
selected  from  the  priesthood. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  A  national  council,  composed  of  thirty  judges, 
had  authority  over  all  inferior  officers.'  (2.)  These  constituted  a 
high  court  of  the  nation.  (3.)  Ten  of  these  judges  were  from  the 
city  of  Memphis,  ten  from  the  city  of  Thebes,  and  ten  from  the 
city  of  Heliopolis.  (4.)  They  were  all  sworn  to  be  honest,  and  to 
deal  justly.  (5.)  Their  decisions  were  supreme  and  final,  and 
became  laws  of  the  nation. 

XXIX. — (1.)  The  Egyptian  kings  continued  to  succeed  from 
the  soldier  class  until  a  priest  named  Sethos  seized  the  throne. 
(2.)  This  caused  the  soldier  class  to  revolt,  and  Sethos  took  away 
their  lands,  which  he  distributed  among  the  other  castes  that  sup- 
ported him. 

XXVI. — (1.)  What  did  the  priests  understand  and  pretend?  (2.)  What 
influence  did  they  exercise  ?  (3.)  What  was  not  permitted  to  the  king  ? 
(4  )  To  wliat  were  the  lowest  Egyptians  accustomed  ? 

XXVIL— (1.)  What  was  required  of  civil  officers?  (2.)  What  other  officers 
were  priests?     (3.)  Who  were  magistrates  ? 

XXVIII.— (1.)  What  body  had  supreme  authority?  (2.)  What  did  the 
thirty  judges  constitute?  (3.)  From  what  cities  did  the  judges  come?  (4.) 
How  were  they  sworn?     (5.)    What  is  said  concerning  their  decisions? 

XXIX.— (1  )  What  is  said  of  a  priest  named  Sethos?  (2.)  What  followed 
this  ? 


The  Egyptian  Hierarchy.  I05 

XXX. — (1.)  When  Setlios  died,  twelve  chiefs  of  tlie  soldier 
and  merchant  castes  took  possession  of  all  authority,  and  formed 
a  government,  in  connection  with  the  priests.  (2.)  One  of  these 
chiefs  hired  foreign  soldiers  and  overthrew  the  eleven  others.  (3.) 
He  soon  established  a  military  despotism  supported  by  foreign 
troops.  (4.)  The  offended  native  soldier  caste  then  emigrated 
from  the  country,  and  settled  in  Ethiopia.  (5.)  Civil  war  fol- 
lowed, and  a  king  was  elected  by  the  foreign  soldiers. 

XXXI. — (1.)  The  priestly  ca' te  continued  to  be  more  or  less 
powerful,  but  the  throne  was  sustained  by  foreign  mercenaries. 
(2.)  The  kings  sent  out  armies,  overran  Syria,  and  held  possession 
of  the  land  of  the  Hebrews  for  a  short  period.  (3.)  Afterward 
Egypt  was  invaded  by  enemies,  and  the  great  city  Thebes  was  cap- 
tured by  a  Carthaginian  army. 

XXXII. — (1.)  The  land  was  afterward  conquered  by  Cambyscs, 
king  of  Persia.  (2.)  It  was  made  subject  to  that  despot,  as  a  pro- 
vince, and  governed  by  a  ruler  called  a  satrap.  (3.)  When  the  Ma- 
cedonian conqueror,  Alexander,  became  monarch  of  the  Persian 
empire,  he  built  a  new  Egyptian  city,  and  called  it  Alexandria. 
(4.)  This  city  grew  to  be  the  capital  of  Egypt,  but  the  ancient  city 
of  Memphis  was  still  venerated  as  the  seat  of  the  priesthood. 

XXXIII.— (1.)  The  hierarchal  monarchy  of  Egypt  had  then 
lasted  thousands  of  years.  (2.)  When  Alexandria  became  the 
chief  city,  its  inhabitants  were  divided  into  three  classes.  (3  )  Tliose 
in  the  first  class  were  called  Alexandrines,  and  comprised  foreigners 
from  all  countries,  but  principally  Grecians  and  Hebrews.  (4.)  Tlie 
second  were  Egyptians,  consisting  of  the  priests  and  lower  orders  of 

XXX.— (1.)  What  took  place  when  Sethos  died?  (2.)  What  did  one  of 
these  chiefs  do?  (3.)  What  was  then  established?  (4.)  What  then  took 
place?     (5.)   What  follows? 

XXXI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  hierarchy  ?  (2.)  What  did  the  kings  do  ? 
(3.)   What  afterward  occurred? 

XXXII.— (1.)  By  whom  was  Egypt  conquered  ?  (2.)  How  was  it  governed? 
(3.)  What  did  Alexander  of  Macedon  do?     (4.)  What  did  this  city  become  ? 

XYVTTT. — (1.)  How  long  had  the  hierarchal  government  lasted  ?  (2.)  How 
were  the  inhabitants  of  Alexandria  divided  ?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  first 
class?     (4.)  What  of  the  second? 

5* 


lo6  History  of  Governments. 

native  citizens.  (5.)  The  third  class  comprised  all  foreign  soldiers 
in  the  service  of  the  government.  (6.)  Persons  outside  of  these 
were  looked  upon  as  shives. 

XXXrV. — (1.)  The  Grecians  and  Macedonians  were  numbered 
as  citizens,  and  dwelt  in  all  the  wards  of  the  city.  (2.)  The  dis- 
tricts of  Egypt  were  placed  under  separate  governors,  selected  from 
the  foreign  citizens. 

XXXV.— (1.)  There  were  five  magistrates  in  Alexandria — a 
Governor,  a  Chief  Judge,  a  Register,  and  a  Chief  of  Police. 
(2.)  The  priesthood,  as  a  body,  were  deprived  of  all  political 
power. 

XXXVI. —  (1.)  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  his  military 
empire  fell  to  pieces  again.  (2.)  A  Macedonian  general,  who  was 
governor  of  Egypt,  made  himself  an  independent  monarch  of  the 
country.  (3.)  His  successors  governed  Egypt  during  three  centu- 
ries. (4.)  It  was  finally  conquered  by  the  Romans,  and  became  a 
province  of  the  Roman  empire. 

XXXVII. — ^(1.)  We  have  seen  how  the  great  Ethiopian  and 
Egyptian  hierarchies  arose,  flourished,  and  fell.  (2.)  The  original 
inhabitants  lived  in  small  tribes,  under  patriarchal  chiefs.  (3.)  They 
were  brought  together  by  the  influence  of  religious  teachers. 
(4.)  From  a  community  of  rude  barbarians,  the  Egyptian  state 
grew  to  be  a  flourishing  empire.  (5.)  But  the  people  were  kept  in 
subjection  to  a  higher  class,  and  they  became  superstitious  and  servile. 

XXXVIII. — (1.)  There  was  no  commonwealth  in  Egypt,  and 


(5.)  What  of  the  third  class?     (6.)  What  were  all  other  persons  considered  ? 

XXXIV. — (1.)  How  were  Grecians  and  Macedonians  numbered  ?  (2.)  How 
were  the  districts  of  Egypt  governed? 

XXXV.— (1.)  What  magistrates  were  in  Alexandria?  (2.)  What  befell  the 
priesthood  ? 

XXXVI. — (1.)  What  occurred  after  Alexander's  death?  (2.)  Who  made  him- 
self a  monarch  ?    (3.)  What  of  his  successors  ?  (4.)  What  was  the  fate  of  Egypt  ? 

XXXVn. — (1.)  What  have  we  seen?  (2.)  How  did  the  original  inhabi- 
tants live  ?  (3.)  How  were  they  combined  as  a  people  ?  (4.)  What  is  said  of 
tlie  Egyptian  state  ?     (5.)  What  is  said  of  the  people  ? 

XXXVm, — (1.)  What   is   remarked   concerning  Egypt  ? 


The  Hindu  Hierarchy.  107 

no  intelligent  love  of  country.  (2.)  Priests  and  native  soldiers 
first  oppressed  the  lower  classes,  and,  afterward,  despots  and  merce- 
naries took  their  place.  (3.)  The  consequence  was,  that  the  Egyp- 
tian community  became  divided  in  itself,  and  military  conquerors 
were  able  to  overthrow  the  government.  (4.)  This  has  always  been 
the  fate  of  nations,  where  one  class  of  the  people  claimed  to  be 
better  than  another  class. 

XXXIX. — (1.)  We  learn  from  the  history  of  Egyptian  govern- 
ment, that  a  hierarchal  despotism,  where  the  priests  are  supported  by 
soldiers,  must  fall  whenever  the  soldiers  revolt.  (2.)  We  also  learn 
that  when  foreign  armies  are  depended  on,  to  support  a  government, 
the  nation  must  soon  sink  under  their  power. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE     HINDU     HIERARCHY 

I. — (1.)  The  first  inhabitants  of  India  lived  in  scattered  families 
and  small  communities.  (2.)  The  origin  of  the  nation  known  as 
Hindus,  was  like  that  of  the  Ethiopians  and  Egyptians.  (3.) 
Several  barbarous  tribes  were  combined  under  the  influence  of  a 
more  intelligent  tribe. 

II. — (1.)  Members  of  the  leading  tribe  became  teachers  and 
priests  of  the  others,  who  formed  the  people.  (2.)  The  bravest  and 
strongest  persons,  in  all  the  tribes,  were  set  apart  as  soldiers  and 
defenders  of  the  rest. 

(2.)  Who  oppressed  the  lower  classes  ?  (3.)  What  was  the  consequence  ? 
(4.)  What  is  here  remarked  ? 

XXXIX. —  (1.)  What  do  we  learn  from  the  history  of  Egyptian  govern- 
ineiits?     {•!.)  What  further  do  we  learn? 

I. — (1.)  What  was  the  earliest  mode  of  life  in  India?  (2.)  What  is  said  of 
the  origin  of  Hindus?     (3.)    What  were  combined? 

II. — (1.)  Who  became  teachers  and  priests?  (2.)  Who  were  set  apart  as 
soldiers? 


io8  History  of  Governments. 

III. — (1.)  In  this  way,  two  divisions  or  classes  of  the  nation 
were  made  superior  to  the  remainder  of  the  combined  individuals. 
(2.)  New  divisions  afterward  arose  out  of  difference  in  occupatioa 

IV. (I.)  The  divisions  became  known  as  castes,  like  the  classes 

of  Egypt.  (2.)  The  leading  division  was  called  the  caste  of  Brah- 
mins, or  sacred  class.  (3.)  All  priests,  teachers,  lawyers,  men  of 
science,  and  officers  of  law,  were  taken  from  this  caste.  (4.)  Its 
members  were  required  by  their  religion  to  be  virtuous,  and  to  lead 
peaceable  lives. 

v.— (1.)  The  second  class  comprised  the  warriors,  and  was 
called  the  Kyetra  caste.  (2.)  Kings,  generals,  and  military  gover- 
nors, were  taken  from  this  caste. 

VI. (IJ  The  third  class  of  Hindus  was  composed  of  farmers 

and  traders,  and  was  called  the  Vaisu  caste.  (2.)  Members  of  the 
Vaisu  caste  could  not  be  priests,  but  were  allowed  to  read  the 
religious  books. 

VII. (1.)  The  fourth  class  of  Hindus  contained  people  en- 
gaged in  various  mechanical  handicrafts.  (2.)  They  lived  with  the 
higher  classes,  as  their  servants.  (3.)  This  class  was  known  as  the 
Soodra  caste. 

Vm. — (1.)  The  lowest  division  of  the  Hindus  comprised  slaves 
and  degraded  persons,  and  was  called  the  Pariah  caste.  (2.)  Mem- 
bers of  this  caste  were  deprived  of  all  privileges.  (3.)  They  were 
forced  to  follow  the  meanest  employments. 


TTT. — (1.)   What  did  this  occasion  ?     (2.)  What  afterward  arose  ? 

rv. (1.)  What   name  was  given  to  these  divisions?     (2.)  What  was  the 

leading  division  called?  (3.)  Who  were  taken  from  this  caste?  (i.)  What 
was  required  of  its  members? 

v.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  second  class?  (2.)  Who  were  taken  from  thia 
zaste  ? 

VI. (1.)  W'hat  of  the  third  class  of  Hindus?     (2.)  What  was  forbidden  to 

members  of  the  third  class,  and  what  were  they  allowed  ? 

VIL fl.)  What  was  the  occupation  of  persons  in  the  fourth  class?     (2.; 

What  e.se  did  they  do?     (3.)  What  was  this  class  called  ? 

vm.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  lowest  division?  (2.)  Of  what  were  ita 
members  deprived?     (3.)  What    were    they  forced  to  do? 


The   Hindu  Hierarchy.  IC9 

IX. — (1.)  Mercantile  and  mechanical  pursuits  generally  descended 
from  family  to  family.  (2.)  A  son  succeeded  to  the  business  or 
handicraft  of  his  father. 

X. — (1.)  Members  of  the  Soodra  caste  vrere  forbidden  to  marry 
out  of  their  own  caste.  (2.)  They  were  not  allowed  to  read  or  to 
be  tauglit  anything,  except  to  obey  the  upper  classes  as  servants. 

XI. — (1.)  Foreigners  and  persons  whose  parents  had  unlawfully 
married  out  of  their  own  castes,  belonged  to  the  Pariah  caste.  (2.) 
Persons  degraded  from  other  castes,  on  account  of  crime,  were  con- 
sidered to  be  Pariahs. 

XII. — (1.)  The  soldiers,  or  Kyeira  caste,  lived  in  communities 
on  the  borders  of  India.  (2.)  It  was  their  duty  to  defend  the 
country  from  invaders,  and  assist  the  priesthood,  kings  and  generals. 

XIII. — (1.)  The  Brahmin  caste,  or  priesthood,  extended  through- 
out all  India.  (2.)  Its  members  possessed  lands  wherever  they 
resided.  (3.)  Brahmins  were  allowed  to  bear  arms,  like  soldiers, 
and  to  engage  in  mercantile  transactions  of  some  kinds.  (4.)  They 
were  strict  in  religious  duties,  and  kept  apart  from  all  inferior 
Hindus. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  monarch  of  the  Hindu  nation  was  called  a 
Rajah.  (2.)  He  was  selected  from  the  soldier  caste,  by  direction 
of  the  Brahmins.  (3.)  He  was  chief  of  the  array,  and  could  make 
war,  after  consulting  with  the  Brahmins  of  his  council.     (4.)  His 


IX. (1.)    What   is   said   of  certain    pursuits?      (2.)    To   what   did   a  son 

fjucoeed  ? 

X.— (1.)  What  were  members  of  the  Soodra  caste  forbidden?  (2.)  How- 
were  they  otherwise  restricted  ? 

XI. — (1.)  What  persons  belonjijed  to  the  Pariah  caste  ?  (2.)  What  other 
persons  were  considered  Pariahs  ? 

Xn. — (1.)  Where  did  the  soldiers  reside  ?     (2.)  What  was  their  duty? 

VTTT. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Brahmin  caste?  (2.)  What  did  its  members 
possess?  (3.)  What  privileges  had  the  Brahmins?  (4.)  What  was  their 
character  ? 

XIV.— (1)  What  was  a  Hindu  monarch  called?  (2.)  How  was  he  ap- 
poicted?     (,3.)  What  was  his  authority  ?     (4.)  Ii   what  was  he  restricted  ? 


110  History  of  Governments. 

civil  authority  was  restricted  by  the  power  of  the  priests,  who  filled 
all  other  offices  of  government. 

XV. —(1.)  The  rajah's  daily  life  was  regulated  by  sacred  laws 
written  in  the  Brahrainical  books.  (2.)  He  was  obliged  to  reside 
in  a  retired  palace  or  castle,  with  a  wife  selected  from  his  own 
caste 

XVI. — (1.)  The  rajah  was  assisted  by  a  chief  counsellor,  whc 
was  usually  a  head  Brahmin  or  high-priest.  (2.)  He  also  appointed 
a  council  of  eight  persons,  with  a  director  of  foreign  affairs,  and  a 
superintendent  of  internal  affairs.  (3.)  All  were  taken  from  the 
caste  of  Brahmins. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  director  of  foreign  affairs  took  charge  of  am 
bassadors  from  other  nations,  and  appointed  agents  and  messengers 
to  visit  foreign  lands.  (2.)  The  director  of  internal  affairs  adminis- 
tered the  revenues,  and  appointed  collectors  and  other  officers 
(3.)  Both  these  officers  were  under  direction  of  the  rajah  and 
jouucil  of  Brahmins. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  director  of  internal  affairs  named  the  head- 
men of  villages  or  townships,  and  appointed  commissioners  to  visit 
every  district  of  the  country.  (2.)  These  commissioners  examined 
into  the  way  local  magistrates  performed  their  duty. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  whole  country  was  divided,  for  government 
purposes,  into  townships.  (2.)  Each  township  included  a  village 
and  the  farms  around  it.  (3.)  A  headman  was  set  over  every 
township.      (4.)  Over  ten  towns  a  higher  headman  was  placed  ; 

XV. — (1.)  How  was  the  rajah's  life  regulated?  (2.)  What  was  he  obligeil 
to  do? 

XVI. — (1.)  By  whom  was  the  rajah  assisted?  (2.)  What  other  officers  had 
he  ?     (3.)  From  what  were  they  all  taken  ? 

XVII.— (1.)  What  did  the  director  of  foreign  affairs  do?  (2.)  What  did  the 
director  ol'internal  affairs  do  ?  (3.)  Under  whose  direction  did  these  ministers 
act? 

XVIII. — (1.)  What  were  other  powers  of  the  director  of  internal  affaira? 
(2.)   What  is  said  of  the  commissioners  ? 

XIX.— (1.)  How  was  the  country  divided?  (2.)  What  was  included  in  a 
township?     {'6.)  Who  was  set  over  each  ?     (4)   What  other  rulers  are  m«u- 


The  Hindu  Hierarchy.  in 

over  .wenty,  a  superior  ;  and  over  a  hundred,  a  still  higher  ruler. 
(5.)  The  highest  headman  was  one  appointed  over  a  thousand 
townships. 

XX. — (1.)  The  headman  of  a  township  reported  to  the  headman 
of  ten  townships.  (2.)  The  ruler  of  ten  or  twenty  was  responsible 
to  the  chief  of  a  hundred.  (3.)  The  chief  of  a  hundred  made  his 
returns  to  the  governor  of  a  thonsand. 

XXI.^ — (1.)  The  headman  of  a  single  township  was  supported 
by  the  contributions  of  its  inhabitants.  (2.)  These  contributions 
consisted  of  food,  drinii,  fuel  and  personal  service.  (3.)  A  headman 
of  ten  townships  received  for  his  share  the  produce  of  two  acres  of 
land  (4.)  The  ruler  of  twenty  townships  enjoyed  the  fruits  of  five 
acres.  (5.)  The  chief  of  a  hundred  townships  was  entitled  to  the 
revenue  of  one  small  township,  and  the  governor  of  a  thousand 
towns  received  the  revenue  of  a  large  township. 

XXII. — (1.)  A  Hindu  township  was  a  small  state  in  itselC 
(2.)  The  members  of  such  a  community  were  composed  of  farmers 
and  traders.     (3.)  They  had  twelve  officers  and  functionaries. 

XXIII. — (1.)  The  first  of  the  twelve  was  the  headman  or  magis- 
trate ;  the  second,  town  clerk  ;  and  the  third,  town  watch  or  con- 
stable. (2.)  The  fourth  was  a  man  to  distribute  water  from  the 
river,  or  public  reservoir,  to  irrigate  the  fields.  (3.)  The  fifth  was 
an  astronomer  or  calculator,  who  advisftd  the  people  what  days 
were  lucky  or  unlucky. 

tioned?     (5.)  Over  how  many  townships  did  the  highest  rule? 

XX. — (1.)  To  wiiom  did  a  township  headman  report?  (2.)  To  whom  was  a 
ruler  of  ten  responsible?  (8.)  To  whom  did  the  chief  of  a  hundred  towns 
make  return  ?  ^ 

XXI. — (1.)  By  whom  was  the  headman  of  a  single  township  supported? 
(2.)  Wluit  were  these  contributions?  (3.)  What  did  the  liendman  of  ten  town- 
ships receive?  (4  )  What  did  the  ruler  of  twenty  get?  (5.)  To  what  were  the 
chiefs  of  a  hundr.ed  and  a  thousand  townships  entitled? 

XXII. — (1.)  What  was  each  Hindu  township?  (2.)  Of  what  were  its  mem- 
bers composed?     (3.)  What  officei's  had  they  ? 

XXni. — (1.)  What  were  the  first  three  functionaries?  (2.)  What  was  the 
fourth  ?     (3.)   What  was  the  fifth  ? 


112  History  of  Governments. 

XXIV. — (1.)  The  sixth  town  functionary  was  a  cartwright,  to 
make  and  repair  the  rude  vehicles  used.  (2.)  The  seventh  was  a 
potter,  who  manufactured  and  mended  earthen  utensils.  (3.)  The 
eighth  was  a  washerman,  who  cleaned  the  cotton  garments  of 
families.  (4.)  The  ninth  was  a  goldsmith,  who  made  ornaments 
and  offerings  for  the  priests.  (5.)  The  tenth  was  a  barber,  the 
eleventh  a  musician,  and  the  twelfth  was  both  schoolmaster  and 
poet. 

XXV. — (1.)  These  twelve  functionaries  subsisted  on  contribu- 
tions made  by  the  farmers  and  traffickers — the  headman  directing 
all.  (2.)  This  simple  division  of  labor  and  management  was  com- 
mon to  all  the  townships. 

XXVI. — (1.)  In  the  chief  city  of  the  Hindus,  there  were  high 
officers  corresponding  to  the  inferior  functionaries  of  townships. 
(2.)  The  rajah's  chief  minister  was  headman  of  the  nation,  under 
monarch  and  chief  brahmins.  (3.)  There  were  a  chief  of  punishment, 
or  high-sheriff,  and  a  chief  gate-keeper,  or  warden  of  the  kingdom. 
(4.)  There  were  a  chief  advocate,  or  attorney-general,  and  a  super- 
intendent of  instruction.  (5.)  There  were  a  chief  of  police,  a  chief 
of  agriculture,  and  a  head  chamberlain,  or  master  of  the  horse. 

XXVII. — (1.)  The  proprietors  of  land  paid  their  taxes  by  giv- 
ing an  eighth  part  of  their  crops.  (2.)  The  lands  of  the  rajah  and 
Brahmins  were  cultivated  by  servants  taken  from  lower  castes,  or 
foreign-born  slaves. 

XXVIII. — (I)    Taxes  were  imposed  on  merchandise  carried 

XXrV. — (1  )  What  was  the  sixth  town  functionary?  (2.)  What  was  the 
seventh?  (3.)  What  was  the  eighth?  (4.)  What  was  the  ninth  ?  (5.)  What 
were  the  remaining  three? 

XXV.— (1.)  How  were  these  functionaries  supported?  (2.)  What  i?  said  of 
this  regulation  ? 

XXVI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  higher  officers?  (2.)  What  was  the  rajah's 
minister?  (3.)  W'hat  chiefs  are  mentioned?  (4.)  Name  others.  (5.)  What 
other  officers  are  mentioned  ? 

XXVn.— (1.)  How  did  the  landholders  pay  their  taxes?  (2.)  Who  culti 
vated  the  lands  of  the  rajah  and  Brahmins  ? 

XXVin. — (.1.)  On  what  were  taxes  imposed  by  the  Hindu  government? 


The  Hindu  Hierarchy.  I13 

over  public  roads  or  rivers,  and  on  manufactures  sold  in  the  public 
markets.  (2.)  The  industrial  classes  generally  paid  their  taxes  in 
labor  for  the  Brahmins. 

XXIX. — (1.)  The  hierarchy  issued  laws,  from  time  to  time,  to 
regulate  trade  in  goods.  (2.)  These  laws  fixed  the  prices  of  all 
merchandise,  and  ordered  five  per  cent,  of  the  profits  to  be  paid  to 
government. 

XXX. — (1.)  The  smaller  communities  of  India  were  republican 
in  eifect,  but  all  authority  was  fixed  by  custom  and  the  laws  of 
caste.  (2.)  The  rajah  was  limited  in  his  power  by  the  same 
religious  influence  that  regulated  the  headmen  of  towns  in  their 
jurisdiction. 

XXXI. — (1.)  The  Hindus  occupied  a  region  of  country  that 
was  separated  from  the  rest  of  Asia  by  a  great  chain  of  mountains. 
(2.)  The  ocean  bounded  all  other  sides,  but  was  not  much  used  by 
thj  inhabitants  for  navigation. 

XXXII. — (1.)  Being  separated  from  other  nations,  the  Hindus 
lived  quietly  and  prospered  under  their  hierarchal  form  of  govern- 
ment. (2.)  The  division  of  castes  was  taught  by  their  religion,  and 
members  of  lower  orders  submitted  without  complaint  to  political 
inferiority. 

XXXIII. — (1.)  The  frame  of  government  of  the  Hindu  nation 
was  very  much  like  that  of  the  Egyptian  hierarchy.  (2.)  The  sacer- 
dotal, or  priest  cast€,  was  the  superior  class,  and  religious  laws  regu- 
lated all  powers  of  the  king.  (3.)  Priests  had  charge  over  all 
legislation,    appointments,  and   matters   of    learning   and    science. 

(2.)  How  did  the  industrial  classes  pay  their  taxes? 

XXIX. — (1.)  What  laws  did  the  hierarchy  issue?  (2.)  What  did  these  laws 
ordain  ? 

XXX.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Hindu  communities?     (2.)  What  of  the  rajah? 

XXXL — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Hindu  country?  (2.)  How  was  it 
bounded  ? 

XXXn. — (1.)  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  separation  of  the  land? 
(2.)  What  is  said  of  the  population? 

YgyTTT. — (1.)  What  did  the  Hindu  frame  of  government  resemble?  (2.) 
What  is  remarked  of  its  rehgion?     (3.)  What  authority  had  the  priesthood? 


1 14  History  of  Governments. 

(4.)  lu  both  nations  the   soldier  caste  \yas  next    to    that  of   the 
priests. 

XXXIV. — (1.)  The  Hindus  remained  a  peculiar  nation  while 
their  hierarchal  government  continued.  (2.)  The  three  higher 
classes  maintained  their  character  as  citizens,  and  the  lower  orders 
were  always  slaves.  (3.)  The  country  was  invaded  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  its  northern  inhabitants  were  forced  to  pay  tribute, 
(4.)  India  was  afterward  conquered  by  different  military  monarcha 
and  warlike  tribes. 

XXXV. — (1.)  The  Hindu  state  was  not  powerful  enough  to 
make  long  resistance  against  invaders.  (2.)  The  lower  classes 
possessed  no  rights  to  lose,  and  submitted  to  one  master  as  readily 
as  to  another.  (3.)  Arabs  and  Tartars  overthrew  the  hierarchic 
governments  and  established  military  monarchies. 

XXXVI. — (1.)  The  Hindu  hierarchal  system  was  followed  by  a 
succession  of  despotic  rajahs,  who  ruled  the  people  with  great 
severity.  (2.)  Finally,  the  country  was  conquered  by  the  English, 
and  it  is  now  governed  as  a  province  of  the  British  empire. 

XXXVII. — (1.)  The  government  of  all  hierarchal  states 
was  based  upon  inequality  of  condition  between  different  classes. 
(2.)  It  was  opposed  to  personal  independence  and  the  rights  of 
individuals.  (3.)  It  was  a  system  of  government  which  could  not 
be  permanent,  or  able  to  resist  foreign  enemies. 

(4.)  In  what  other  respect  were  the  two  hierarchies  similar? 

XXXIV.— (1.)  How  did  the  Hindus  remain?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  the 
ca?tes?     (y.)  What  took  place?     (4.)  What  afterward  occurred? 

XXXV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  tlie  Hindu  state?  (2.)  What  of  the  lower 
classes?     (3.)  What  was  the  consequence  ? 

XXXVI.— (1.)  What  followed  the  hierarchy?     (2.)  What  finally  occurred? 

XXXVn. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Hindu  government?  (2.)  To  what  was  it 
opposed?     (3.)   What  is  remarkeii  of  the  hierarchal  system? 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   THEOCRACY    OF    THIBET. 

I. — (1.)  The  extensive  country  of  Thibet,  between  China  and 
India,  is  governed  as  a  theocratic  hierarchy.  (2.)  Its  ruler  is 
called  the  Grand  Lama.  (3.)  He  is  supposed  to  be  Boodh,  the 
national  god,  in  a  human  form. 

II. — (1.)  The  worship  of  Boodh  first  flourished  among  the  people 
of  Thibet.  (2.)  It  is  now  common  among  most  of  the  nations 
dwelling  in  China,  Tartary,  and  India. 

III. — (1.)  The  followers  of  Boodh,  in  Thibet,  believe  that  a  being 
who  once  lived  under  tliat  name  became  afier  death  their  chief  god. 
(2.)  He  then  returned  to  the  earth  in  the  body  of  a  young  child, 
and  grew  up  to  be  the  first  Grand  Lama  of  Thibet. 

IV. — (1.)  The  Grand  Lama  is  held  to  be  supreme  ruler  of  Thibet, 
bat  the  country  is  under  military  protection  of  the  Emperors  of 
China.  (2.)  Under  the  Grand  Lama  are  spiritnal  governors  of 
provinces,  who  are  called  hoo-took-toos.  (3.)  The  Grand  Lama  is 
supposed  to  be  continually  at  prayer,  and  an  officer  called  a  rujmekhan 
is  chosen  to  perform  the  duties  of  chief  ruler, 

V. — (1.)  Thiliet  is  divided  into  two  provinces,  with  a  Chinese 
military  governor  over  each.  (2.)  The  two  provinces  are  s'lU 
divided  into  cantons,  with  a  hoo-took-too  over  every  canton. 

I. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Thibet?  (2.)  What  is  the  name  of  its  ruUr  j 
(:i.)  What  is  he  supposed  to  be  ? 

n. — (1.)  Where  did  the  worship  of  Boodh  first  flourish?  (2.)  What  is  ssuu 
of  this  worship? 

in.— (I.)  What  do  the  followers  of  Boodh  in  Tliibet  beheve  ?  (2.)  Wbat 
else  do  they  believe  ? 

IV.— (1.)  What  authority  exists  ill  Thil)et  ?  (2.)  What  officers  are  subordi- 
nate to  the  Grand  Lama?     (3.)   V/hat  is  .said  of  the  nomekhan  ? 

V. — (1.)  How  is  Thibet  i'vided  ?     (2.)  How  are  the  provinces  sub-divided? 

15 


lib  History  of  Governments. 

VI. (1.)    The  aomekhan  and  the  hoo-took-toos  are  selected  from 

the  sacerdotal  tribe  of  lamas,  or  priests.  (2.)  This  priesthood 
is  very  numerous,  and  is  the  ruling  class.  (3.)  All  teachers,  magis- 
trates, and  rulers,  are  taken  from  the  class  of  lamas.  (4.)  Most  of 
the  lamas  reside  in  large  religious  houses.  (5.)  One  of  those 
houses  sometimes  contains  fifteen  thousand  lamas  in  a  community. 

VII.— (1.)  Lamas  are  arranged  in  different  ranks,  according  to 
the  studies  they  have  gone  through,  (2.)  The  principal  lamas  are 
heads  of  religious  houses,  and  chief  officers  of  government. 
(3.)  They  are,  supposed  to  be  filled  with  divinity,  like  the  Grand 
Lama  himself. 

VIII.— (1.)  When  a  Grand  Lama  dies,  the  god  Boodh  is  sup- 
posed to  go  into  the  body  of  another  infant.  (2.)  The  hoo-took- 
toos  assemble  in  the  principal  city,  with  solemn  ceremonies. 
(3.)  The  highest  lama  families  then  send  in  the  names  of  their  new- 
born infants.  (4.)  The  assembly  of  hoo-took-toos  choose  three  out 
3f  the  number  to  be  brought  to  the  capital.  (5.)  They  put  slips, 
containing  the  names  of  the  three  babes,  in  an  urn,  and  draw  one 
out.  (6.)  The  child  having  its  name  drawn,  is  declared  to  be  the 
Grand  Lama,  and  immediately  worshipped  as  head  of  the  nation. 

IX. (1.)  The  Chinese  governors  who  reside  in  the  provinces  of 

Thibet  are  changed  once  in  three  years.  (2.)  All  their  subordi- 
nates and  soldiers  go  back  to  China  with  them.  (3)  The  Emperor 
of  China  is  a  believer  in  the  religion  of  Boodh,  and  protects  the 
worship  of  the  Grand  Lama. 


VI. (1.)  II- <v  are  the  nomekhan  and  hoo-took-toos  selected?     (2.)  What 

is  said  of  the  priesthood,  or  lamas?  (3.)  What  are  taken  from  this  class? 
(4.)  Where  do  most  of  the  lamas  reside?     (5.)  What  is  said  of  those  houses? 

Vn. — (1.)  How  are  lamas  arranged?  (2.)  What  are  the  principal  priests? 
(3.)   What  is  thought  of  them  ? 

Vni. —  (1.)  What  is  supposed  when  a  Grand  Lama  dies?  (2.)  What  do  the 
hoo-took-toos  do?  (3.)  What  is  done  by  the  highest  lama  families? 
(4.)  What  is  done  by  the  assembly  of  hoo-took-toos?  (5.)  How  is  this  choice 
proceeded  with?     (6.)  What  is  the  result? 

IX. (1.)  What   is  said  of  the  Chinese  governors?     (2.)  Who  return    wiiii 

them  to  China  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  Emperor  of  China  ? 


CHAPTER   VI. 

THE    ROMAN    HIERARCHAL    MONARCHY. 

I.-.  J  •  After  the  establishment  of  Christianity,  members  of 
Christian  communities  formed  combinations  called  churches.  (2.) 
Churches  were  divided  into  smaller  assemblies,  with  a  priest  or 
deacon  over  each.  (3.)  Over  the  priests  there  was  chosen  a  higher 
priest,  called  the  bishop.  (4.)  A  certain  number  of  bishops  were 
placed  under  the  direction  of  a  still  superior  priest,  who  was  called 
the  archbishop. 

II._(1.)  The  bishop,  who  lived  at  Rome,  received  the  name  of 
Pope,  which  means  father.  (2.)  Another  bishop,  who  lived  at  Con- 
stantinople, was  called  the  patriarch.  (3.)  Afterward  the  believers 
of  the  Christian  religion  became  separated  into  two  opposite 
churches.  (4.)  The  Christians  whose  head,  or  father,  resided  at 
Constantinople,  have  been  since  known  as  the  Greek  church. 
(5.)  The  Russian  people  all  belong  to  this  Greek  church. 

III. — (1.)  The  followers  of  Christianity  whose  bishop,  or  father, 
resided  at  Rome,  have  been  always  known  as  the  Roman  church. 
(2.)  Nearly  all  civilized  people  were  followers  of  the  Roman  church 
during  the  middle  ages.  (3.)  The  popes  and  chief  bishops  of  this 
church  constitute  the  Roman  hierarchy. 

IV. — (1.)  Tlie  earliest  Christian  bishops  did  not  exercise  author- 
ity   over  government  affairs,   but  were    religious  fathers  or  chief 

I._(l.)  What  was  done  by  members  of  Christian  communities?  (2.)  How 
were  churches  divided  ?  (3.)  Who  was  chosen  to  preside  over  the  priests  and 
deacons?     (4.)  Who  were  the  bishops  phiced  under? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  bishop  who  Hves  at  Rome?  (2.)  What  of 
another  bishop?  (3.)  Wiiat  afterward  occurred?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  a  por- 
tion of  these?     (5.)  What  people  belong  to  the  Greek  church  ? 

III.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  another  body  of  Christians?  (2.)  What  people 
followed  the  Roman  church  ?     (3.)    Who  constitute  the  Roman  hierarchy  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  earliest  known  Christian  bishops? 

117 


ll8  History  of  Governments. 

priests  of  the  churches.  (2.)  The  Emperor  Charlemagne  gave  the 
city  of  Rome  and  otlier  territories  to  a  bishop  named  Leon,  to  gov- 
ern them  as  bis  liingdom.  (3.)  Leon  and  his  successors  paid  an 
annual  tribute  to  the  emperor,  in  return  for  their  possessions. 
(4.)  Afterward,  the  popes  became  independent  temporal  sovereigns. 

V. — (1.)  The  territories  now  governed  by  the  Roman  hierarchy 
consist  of  several  Italian  provinces  called  the  Papal  States. 
(2.)  These  are  divided,  politically,  into  twenty  districts.  (3.)  The 
city  of  Rome  is  the  capital,  and  has  a  governor  who  acts  under  the 
hierarchy.  (4.)  There  are  seven  provincial  governments  called  de- 
legations, with  a  ruler  over  each,  who  is  appointed  by  the  pope,  as 
his  delegate.  (5.)  The  remaining  twelve  provincial  governments 
are  called  legations,  and  each  has  a  ruler  appointed  by  the  pope, 
called  a  legate. 

VI. — (1.)  The  hierarchy  is  constituted  from  an  aristocracy  of 
chief  priests  called  cardinals.  (2.)  The  cardinals  are  associated  in 
a  religious  senate  called  the  Sacred  College.  (3.j  The  number  of 
cardinals  is  limited  to  seventy,  and  all  vacancies  are  filled  by  ap- 
pointment of  the  pope.  (4.)  A  president  of  the  Sacred  College  of 
Cardinals  is  chosen  for  life,  and  is  called  the  Cardinal-Chancellor. 

VII. — (1.)  The  pope  is  elected  for  life,  and  when  he  dies,  the 
Cardinal-Chancellor  occupies  his  place,  and  summons  the  College  of 
Cardinals  to  assemble  at  Rome.  (2.)  The  Sacred  College  meet  to 
choose  a  successor  on  the  tenth  day,  from  one  of  their  own  number. 
(3.)  A  majority  of  two-thirds  of  the  seventy  is  required  to  agree 
upon  the  choice. 

(2.)  What  did  the  Emperor  Charlemagne  do  ?  (3.)  What  followed  ?  (4.)  What 
afterward  took  place  ? 

V. — (1.)  Of  what  do  the  Roman  hierarchy's  territories  con.sist  ?  (2.)  How 
are  they  politically  divided?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  tlie  city  of  Rome? 
(4.)  What  of  the  governments  called  delegations?  (5  )  Wiiat  is  said  of  'he 
remaining  twelve? 

VI.  — (1)  From  what  is  the  hierarchy  constituted  ?  (2.)  How  are  the  car- 
dinals associated?  (3.)  What  is  the  number  of  cardinals?  (4.)  What  is  said 
of  the  Cardinal-Chancellor  ? 

VII. — (1.)  What  is  said  regardii.g  the  pope?  (2.)  What  does  the  Sacred 
College  do?     (3)    What  is  required? 


The   Roman  Hierarchal  Monarchy  119 

VIII.— (1.)  The  pope  is  assisted  in  his  government  by  a  Cardi- 
nal-Secretary of  State,  who  is  chief  minister.  (2.)  A  board  of 
cardinals  is  appointed  to  preside  over  each  department  of  public 
affairs. 

IX. —  (1.)  Every  provincial  government  is  administered  by  a  de- 
legate or  legate,  and  a  council.  (2.)  The  council  consists  of  an 
oflBcer  called  a  gonfalonier  and  four  counsellors.  (3.)  The  gonfalo- 
nier is  chosen  by  the  people  of  his  district,  and  the  four  counsellors 
are  named  by  the  pope,  to  serve  five  years. 

X. — (1.)  The  provinces  are  sub-divided  into  districts,  over  each 
of  which  a  sub-governor  is  appointed.  (2.)  These  sub-governors 
are  judges  of  all  civil  cases  affecting  property  under  a  certain 
amount.  (3.)  They  determine  minor  criminal  causes,  subject  to  ex- 
amination bv  a  higher  tribunal  called  the  Collegiate  Court.  (4.) 
Tlie  Collegiate  Court  is  composed  of  the  pope's  delegate  and  a  board 
of  officers. 

XI. — (1.)  There  are  three  courts  superior  to  the  Collegiate 
Courts  of  provinces.  (2.)  These  three  courts  sit  at  three  principal 
cities,  and  examine  the  decisions  of  inferior  tribunals.  (3.)  Tlieie 
is  also  a  Supreme  Court  of  Cardinals  at  Rome.  (4.)  All  judges 
and  other  civil  officers  are  required  to  be  priests.  (5.)  The  army 
and  navy  comprise  about  twenty  thousand  men. 

Vm. — (1.)  How  is  the  pope  assisted  in  government?  (2.)  What  body  pre- 
sides over  each  department  of  public  business? 

IX. — (1.)  How  is  every  provincial  government  administered  ?  (2.)  Ofwl'.at 
does  this  council  consist  ?     (3.)  How  are  these  appointed? 

X. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  provinces  ?  (2.)  What  authority  have  the  sub- 
governors?  (3.)  What  is  further  said  of  them  ?  (4.)  How  is  the  Collegiate 
Court  formed  ? 

XI.— (1.)  What  higher  courts  are  mentioned?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  these  ? 
(3.)  What  of  a  still  higher  court?  (4.)  What  is  required  of  all  civil  officers! 
(5.)  How  large  are  the  army  and  navy  of  the  Papal  States? 


ANCIENT 

REPUBLICAN  SYSTEMS  OF  GOVERNMENT. 


CHAPTER   I. 

SYRIAN    AND    ARABIAN    RELIGIOUS    REPUBLICS. 

I. — (1.)  The  ancient  people  called  Syrians  were  descended  frooi 
one  of  the  sous  of  Shem.  (2.)  They  were  divided  into  several 
tribes,  settled  in  cities  and  villages,  under  direction  of  their  patri- 
archs and  elders. 

II. — (1.)  The  Syrian  tribes  were  independent  of  each  other,  and 
formed  popular  governments.  (2.)  Each  comniuoity  conducted  its 
affairs  in  public  assemblies. 

III. — (1.)  Leading  families  grew  up  into  an  aristocratic  branch 
of  each  tribe.  (2.)  The  patriarchal  authority  gave  place  to  that  of 
a  chief,  at  first  elected,  but  afterward  hereditary. 

IV. — (1.)  When  a  tribe  increased  in  numbers  and  strength,  it 
was  able  to  control  smaller  tribes.  (2.)  These  grew  up  into  a 
kingdom,  more  or  less  despotic,  according  to  the  talents  and  charac- 
ter of  the  chief. 

L— (1.)  From  whom  were  the  Syrians  descended?  (2.)  What  was  their 
manner  of  life  ? 

II.— (1.)  What  government  had  these  tribes  ?  (2.)  How  did  each  community 
conduct  its  public  business  ? 

III. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  leading  families  ?  (2  )  To  what  did  the  patriarchal 
authority  give  place? 

IV.— (1.;  What  was  a  tribe  able  to  do?    (2.)  To  what  did  these  grow? 
120 


Syrian  and  Arabian  Religious  Republics.       121 

V. — (1.)  There  was  a  priesthood  among  the  Syrians,  which 
exercised  great  influence.  (2.)  It  was  composed  of  several 
classes,  each  having  distinct  duties  to  perform  in  the  worship  of 
idols. 

VI. — (1.)  Some  of  these  priests  killed  animals  offered  in  sacri- 
fice, others  attended  the  altars,  and  others  were  musicians  and 
singers.  (2.)  There  were  also  priestesses,  who  often  pretended  to  be 
crazy,  (3.)  The  high-priest  was  chosen  every  year  by  the  others, 
and  wore  a  purple  dress,  with  a  golden  mitre. 

VII.— (1.)  The  Syrians  had  a  city  which  they  called  holy, 
where  was  situated  a  temple.  (2.)  Multitudes  of  people  assembled 
in  the  holy  city,  to  offer  sacrifices.  (3.)  The  priests  were  supported 
by  offerings  brought  by  pilgrims.  (4.)  The  Syrians  at  first  existed 
as  small  independent  nations,  till  the  weaker  ones  were  subdued  by 
a  powerful  tribe  called  the  Syrians  of  Damascus. 

VIII. (1  )  The  Arabians  were  descendants  of  Shem,  and  dwelt 

in  the  wilderness,  as  nomadic  tribes.  (2.)  Ishmael,  the  second  son 
of  Abram,  became  a  ruler  and  high-priest  of  the  Arabians. 

IX. (1.)   The   posterity  of   Ishmael,  in  later  times,  exercised 

power  as  kings  of  the  principal  tribe  of  Arabians.  (2.)  Most  of 
the  Arabian  tribes  continued  to  lead  a  nomadic  life.  (3.)  A  few 
settled  in  towns,  and  occupied  themselves  with  agricultural  and 
commercial  business. 

X. (1.)  The  wandering  tribes  drove  their  flocks  from  place  to 

place,  and  used  camels  as  beasts  of  burden  or  for  domestic  service. 


v.— (1.)  What  exercised  great  influence  among  the  Syrians  ?  (2.)  How  was 
it  composed  ? 

VI. [1.)  What  were  duties  of  tliese  priests?     (2.)  What  else  were  there? 

(3.)  What  is  said  of  a  high-priest? 

VII.— (1.)  What  city  had  the  Syrians?  (2.)  Who  assembled  there ?  (3.) 
How  were  the  priests  supported?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  independent  Syrian 
tribes? 

Vin.— (1.)  Who  wen«.  th6  Arabians  '     (2",   What  aid  Ishmael  become  ? 

IX.— {1.)  What  is  said  of  Ishmael's  posterity  ?  (2.)  Wliat  did  most  of  the 
tribes  continue  to  do?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  a  few? 

X. (\.)  What  customs  of  the  wandering  tribes  are  mentioned  ? 

6 


1 22  History  of  Governments. 

(2.)  Xornad  \val)ians  regarded  the  settled  tribes  as  degraded  by 
their  labor  and  peaceful  mode  of  life.  (3.)  The  former  preferred 
to  remain  in  freedom  and  poverty,  while  town-dwelling  Arabs  grew 
rich  by  traffic  and  industry. 

XI. — (1.)  Arabians  who  settled  in  towns  and  villages  made 
divisions  of  the  soil,  and  carried  on  husbandry,  with  many  other 
lucrative  kinds  of  labor.  (2.)  They  became  travelling  merchants, 
journeying  in  large  companies,  called  caravans,  across  the  desert, 
from  country  to  country. 

XII. — (1.)  Arabian  tribes  were  controlled,  in  a  great  measure, 
by  their  magicians  and  priests.  (2.)  They  maintained  their  cus- 
toms and  wild  independence  during  all  the  wars  of  Asia.  (3.)  Their 
latest  descendants  wander  as  nomads  in  the  same  wilderness  whereiu 
AbVam  journeyed  and  Ishmael  was  born. 

XIII. — (1.)  Each  early  tribe  of  Arabians  was  an  independent 
community,  under  patriarchal  government.  (2.)  When  a  few  tribes 
settled  together,  they  became  known  in  history  as  some  nation  under 
kiutrly  or  aristocratic  government.  (3.)  The  authority  of  their  moa- 
arclis  was  always  balanced  by  that  of  head  families  or  aristocracy. 

XIV. — (1.)  Arabian  tribes  claimed  rank  according  to  their  des- 
cent from  the  different  sons  of  their  first  patriarch.  (2.)  There  was 
one  tribe,  called  the  Koreish,  regarded  as  superior  to  the  rest.  (3.) 
This  tribe  occupied  a  fertile  portion  of  Arabia,  and  possessed  a  holy 
city  named  Mecca. 

XV. — (1.)  The  Midianites  were  a  tribe  of  Arabians.  (2.)  They 
were  governed  by  an  aristocracy  of  several  chiefs,  with  one  at  their 

(2.)  How  did  the  nomads  regard  settlers'?     (3.)  What  did  the  former  prefer? 

XI. — (1.)  What  d.d  settled  Arabians  do?     (2.)  What  did  they  become? 

XII.-  (1.)  How  were  Arabian  tribes  controlled?  (2.)  What  did  they  maiit- 
tain  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  their  descendants  ? 

Xm. —  (1  )  What  was  every  early  Arabian  tribe?  (2.)  What  took  place 
when  a  few  tribes  setiled  together?  (3.)  By  what  was  their  monarch's  author- 
ity balanced  ? 

XIV. — (1 )  What  is  said  regarding  the  rank  of  Arabian  tribes?  (2  )  What 
was  the  highest  tribe?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  this  tribe? 

ZV. — (1.)  What  were  the  Midianite"  ?     (2.)   How  were  they  governed? 


Syrian  and  Arabian  Religious  Republics.      123 

head  acting  as  juige  and  priest.     (3.)  They  were  classified  as  shep- 
herds and  traders. 

XVI.— •(!.)  The  shepherds  dwelt  in  tents,  keeping  herds  and 
flocks,  and  forming  a  military  branch  of  the  tribe.  '2.)  The  mer- 
chants travelled  in  caravans,  with  camels  and  servants,  'Vera  place 
to  place  through  Arabia  and  Syria. 

XVII. — (1.)  Moses,  the  Hebrew  leader,  resided  among  those 
Midianites  during  forty  years,  while  he  was  banished  from  Egypt  by 
Pharaoh.  (2.)  He  married  a  daughter  of  Raguel,  a  priest-chief, 
who  afterward  joined  the  Hebrew  nation. 

XVIII. — (1  )  Another  Arabian  tribe  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible, 
under  the  name  of  Ammonites.  (2.)  They  were  descended  from 
Amnion,  tiie  son  of  Lot,  who  was  brother  of  the  patriarch  Abraham.  ^ 

XIX. — (1.)  The  Ammonites  were  ruled  by  a  principal  chief,  iu 
connection  with  a  priesthood.  (2.)  The  priests  erected  a  hollow 
image,  as  an  idol  for  the  nation  to  worship.  (3.)  It  had  seven 
mouths,  in  which  the  people  placed  offerings  ;  and  these  offerings 
served  to  support  the  priests. 

XX. — (1.)  Another  Arabian  tribe  was  known  as  Moabites,  de- 
scended, like  ilie  Ammonites,  from   Lot.     (2.)  They  dwelt   in  vil- • 
lages,  under  a  king,  and  raised  herds  of  cattle.     (3.)  They  had  an 
aristocracy  of  principal  families,  and  were  allies  of  the  Midianites 
and  Ammonites. 

XXI. — (1.)  Arabian  nomads  wbo  pitched  their  tents  near  the 

''^.)   IIow  were  they  classified  by  occupations? 

XVI.— (1.)  What  was  the  shepherds'  mode  of  life?  (2.)  What  was  that  of 
the  merchants  ? 

XVIL— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Hebrew  Moses?  (2.)  Who  did  Moses 
marry  ? 

XVni. — (1.)  What  other  Arabian  tribe  is  mentioned  in  tLe  Bible?  (2.) 
What  is  said  about  them  ? 

XIX.— (1.)  How  were  the  Ammonites  ruled?  (2.)  What  did  the  priests 
erect?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  this  image? 

XX.— (1.)  What  was  another  Arabian  tribe  ?  (2.)  What  life  did  they  lead? 
(3.)  What  government  had  they? 

XXI. — (l.t  What  did  certain  tribes  of  Arabian  nomads  often  become? 


124  History  of  Governinents. 

sea-coast  often  became  pirates  and  plunderers  of  shipwrecked  Tes- 
sels.  (2.)  Wild  Arabian  tribes  who  roved  the  desert  were  likewise 
predatory  or  plundering  tribes.  (3.)  The  settled  Arabians  devoted 
themselves  to  manufactures  and  agriculture,  and  formed  a  class  of 
travellinsr  merchants  in  the  most  ancient  times. 


CHAPTER  11. 


CANAANITE   EEPDBLICAN   TRlBfiS. 


I. — (1.)  The  Canaanites  were  descendants  of  Canaan,  son  of 
Ham,  and  grandson  of  Noah.  (2  )  They  formed  separate  -com- 
munities under  various  names,  and  occupied  a  large  portion  of  the 
country  between  Egypt  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

11. — (1.)  Some  of  the  Canaanites  lived  in  cities  and  villages,  and 
others  roved  over  plains  and  hills  as  shepherds.  (2.)  Settled  tribes 
carried  on  agriculture  and  commerce,  and  engaged  their  wilder 
countrymen  as  soldiers. 

III._(1.)  The  Canaanites  were  ruled  by  chiefs  called  kings, 
whose  office  in  some  tribes  was  hereditary,  and  in  others  elective. 
(2.)  All  public  business  was  discussed  and  decided  upon  in  assem- 
blies of  the  people.  (3.)  Magistrates  were  chosen  from  the  chief 
families. 

IV. — (1.)  Rude  tribes,  who  dwelt  in  tents,  often  made  war 
against  the  settled  Canaanites,  and  obliged  them  to  pay  tribute. 


(2.)  What  were  other  wandering  tribes?  (3.)  To  what  did  the  settled  people 
devote  themselves '' 

I._(l.)  What  were  the  Canaanites?     (2.)  What  is  said  of  them  ? 

n.— (1.)  Where  did  the  Canaanites  reside?  (2.)  What  did  the  settled 
tribes  do? 

m.— (1.)  How  were  the  Canaanites  ruled?  (2.)  Where  was  public  business 
decided  on?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  magistrates? 

IV. (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  impositions  of  rude  tribes? 


Canaanite  Republican  Tribes.  125 

(2.)  A  nomad  tribe  of  Canaanites  called  Elamites  is  mentioned  in 
the  Bible  as  conquering  several  other  tribes. 

v.— (1  )  Abraham,  the  patriarch,  lived  with  the  Elamites  for 
several  years,  and  assisted  tiieir  king,  Chedorlaomer,  in  bis  wars 
against  other  tribes.  (2.)  Abraham  was  also  an  ally  of  Melchize- 
dek,  king-priest  of  Salem,  a  city  of  the  Canaanites. 

VI. — (1.)  Abraham  was  originally  a  nomadic  chief,  and  emigrated 
from  the  plains  of  Ship.ar,  where  the  Assyrians  dwelt.  (2.)  He 
wandered  with  his  family  and  servants  from  place  to  place,  during 
many  years. 

VII. — (1.)  Another  tribe  of  Canaanites,  called  the  Hittites,  lived 
near  the  borders  of  Egypt.  (2.)  Abraham  and  his  household  visited 
the  Hittites,  and  bought  of  them  a  burial-place,  called  the  Cave  of 
Machpelah. 

Vin. — (1.)  Wlien  the  Hebrews  came  out  of  Egypt,  under  their 
leader  Moses,  they  made  war  on  all  the  Canaanite  tribes,  and  took 
possession  of  their  country.  (2.)  The  defeated  nations  were  either 
reduced  to  servitude  or  driven  from  their  ancient  territory. 

(2  )  What  conquering  tribe  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Abraham  ?     (2.)  Of  whom  was  Abraham  an  ally  ? 

VI.— (1.)  What  was  Abraham  originally?     (2.)  What  did  he  do  ? 

VII. — (1.)  What  other  tribe  of  Canaanites  is  mentioned?  (2  )  Who  visited 
this  tribe,  and  what  did  he  do  ? 

ViU. — (1.)  W  lat  is  said  of  the  Hebrews  under  Moses?  (2.)  What  became 
of  the  defeated  nations  i 


CHAPTER  III. 

IHK     PHCENICIAN    CONFEDERACY. 

I. — (1.)  One  tribe  of  the  Canaanites,  inhabiting  the  sea-toast  of 
Syria,  succeeded  in  preserving  its  independence  against  the  Hebrew 
invaders.  (2.)  This  tribe  possessed  territory  upon  the  headlands 
and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

II. — (1.)  The  first  large  city  founded  by  this  tribe  of  Canaanites 
was  named  Sidon,  and  its  inhabitants  became  known  in  history  as 
Phoenicians.  (2.)  The  next  city  built  was  Tyre,  which  afterward 
obtained  celebrity  as  a  chief  city  of  the  Phoenicians. 

III. — (1.)  Several  other  cities  were  built  by  the  Phoenicians  upon 
the  coast  and  islands.  (2.)  Each  city  was  independent  of  the 
others,  and  governed  by  its  own  laws.  (3.)  In  some  cities  kings 
were  elected,  in  others  they  were  hereditary,  and  in  others  there 
were  no  kings. 

IV. — (1.)  The  government  of  every  Phoenician  city  was  more  or 
less  aristocratic  in  form.  (2.)  The  magistrates  always  belonged  to 
a  few  wealthy  families.  (3.)  The  assemblies  consisted  of  chief 
citizens,  who  chose  a  senate  from  their  own  ranks.  (4.)  The 
power  of  the  king,  or  chief  magistrate,  was  limited  by  the  principal 
families. 

V. — (1.)  The  various  Phoenician  cities  were  connected  with  each 
other  by  alliances.     (2.)  At  certain  periods,  a  general  congress  or 

I._(l.)  What  is  said  of  one  tribe  of  Canaanites  ?  (2.)  Where  did  this  tribe 
make  settlements  ? 

II.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  city  of  this  tribe  ?     (2.)  What  of  another  city  ? 

III.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  other  cities  V  (2.)  What  of  each  city  ?  (3.)  What 
about  kings'? 

IV.— (1.)  What  was  the  government  of  each  city  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  the 
magistrates?  (3.)  How  were  tlie  assemblies  composed?  (4.)  What  was  the 
chief's  power  ? 

v.— (1.)  What  connected  the  various  cities?  (2.)  What  took  place  at  cei> 
126 


The  Phoeaiclan  Confederacy.  127 

meeting  of  the  chief  men  of  all  the  cities,  was  held  in  one  of  the 
cities,  to  deliberate  on  matters  of  importance.  (3.)  The  cities 
thus  formed  a  confederation,  under  separate  chiefs. 

VI. — (1.)  Next  to  the  king,  or  other  chief,  in  a  Phoenician  city, 
was  a  magistrate,  who  shared  the  power  with  him.  (2.)  This  officer 
was  responsible  to  the  chief  families  who  elected  him. 

VII. — (1.)  In  each  city  there  were  several  orders  of  priests,  who 
exercised  much  influence.  (2.)  The  king's  counsellors  were  taken 
from  the  priesthood.  (3.)  The  priests  were  considered  next  in 
dignity  to  the  king. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  Phcenicians  grew  wealthy  by  traffic  with  other 
countries.  (2.)  They  built  many  ships,  and  navigated  all  the  seas 
then  known.  (3.)  They  dispatched  caravans  to  trade  with  Syria 
and  more  distant  countries  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

IX. — (1.)  Merchants  in  every  Phoenician  commuaity,  constituted 
the  most  powerful  and  important  class  of  citizens.  (2.)  The  soldiers 
employed  in  foreign  wars  were  usually  foreigners,  hired  and  paid  by 
each  city. 

X. — (1.)  It  was  the  policy  of  every  Phoenician  community  to 
guard  against  over-population.  (2.)  They  did  not  wish  their  cities 
to  become  crowded  with  idle  or  other  useless  inhabitants. 

XI. — (1)  They  sent  out  companies  of  emigrants,  from  time  to 
time,  to  settle  in  other  places.  (2.)  Those  emigrants  planted  colo- 
nies, which  afterward  grew  to  be  flourishing  couunuiiities. 

XII. — (1.)  Whenever  a  Phoenician  settlement  was  made,  the 

tain  periods  ?     (3.)  What  did  the  Phoenician  cities  form  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  ollicer  was  next  to  the  chief  of  a  Phoenician  community?' 
(2  )  To  whom  was  he  responsible? 

Vn. — (1.)  What  were  there  in  each  city?  (2.)  What  officers  were  selected 
from  tliose  orders?     (3.)  How  were  the  priests  regarded? 

Vni. — (1.)  How  did  the  Phoenicians  prosper?  (2.)  What  did  they  do? 
(3.)  What  IS  said  of  their  trade  ? 

ES. — (1.)  What  did  merchants  constitute?     (2.)  Who  were  the  military? 

X. — (1.)  What  was  the  Phoenician  policy?     (2.)  What  did  they  not  wish? 

XI (1.1  What  did  they  send  out?     (2.)  What  did  these  emigrants  do? 

XII.  —(1.)  What  was  done  when  a  Phoenician  settlement  was  made? 


128  History  of  Governments. 

colonists  built  a  town  and  began  to  trade  with  the  people  near 
them,  and  the  cities  from  which  they  iiad  emigrated. 

XIII. (1.)  One  of   these  companies  of  Phoenician  emigrants 

planted  the  colony  of  Carthage,  which  afterward  became  a  powerful 
and  famous  city.  (2.)  Phoenician  merchants  sailed  in  their  ships  to 
all  parts  of  the  known  world,  and  traded  with  every  country. 

XIV.— (1.)  The  most  notable  feature  of  Phoenician  communities 
was  their  mercantile  enterprise.  (2.)  Another  feature  was  their 
organization  into  independent  states,  each  wiih  its  city  and  district 
government.  (3.)  A  third,  was  their  practice  of  sending  out  colonies, 
to  make  new  settlements,  wherever  an  opportunity  was  afforded  for 
trade. 

XV.— (1.)  The  history  of  the  Phoenicians  furnishes  an  example 
of  divine  wisdom,  in  directing  human  affairs.  (2.)  The  Hebrews 
were  permitted  to  take  possession  of  the  land  of  the  Canaanites,  in 
order  to  bring  about  the  future  civilization  of  distant  countries. 

XVI. — (1.)  Some  Canaanitish  tribes  were  dispersed  throughout 
Syria,  and  became  merchants,  travelling  in  great  caravans.  (2.) 
These  caravans  were  the  means  of  making  remote  countries  known  to 
each  other,  through  traffic  and  intercourse.  (3.)  Other  Canaanitish 
tribes  were  driven  to  the  sea-coast,  and  there  formed  communities 
of  sailors  and  merchants.  (4.)  These  latter  built  ships,  and  sent  out 
colonies  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  civilizing  savage  tribes  wherever 
they  settled. 

XVII.— (1.)  We  read  in  the  Bible  that  in  King  Solomon's  time 
the  Phcenicians  were  allies  of  the  Hebrews,  and  traded  with  them. 

XTTT. — (1.)  What  did  one  of  these  companies  do  ?  (2.)  What  did  Phoenician 
merchants  do  ? 

XIV. — (1.)  What  was  the  most  notable  feature  of  Phcenician  communities? 
(2.)  What  was  another?     (3.)  What  was  a  third? 

XV.— (1.)  What  does  Phoenician  history  furnish  ?  (2.)  For  what  purpose 
were  the  Hebrews  permitted  to  take  possession  of  Canaan  ? 

XVI. — (1.)  What  resulted  to  some  of  the  Canaanitish  tribes  ?  (2.)  Of  what 
were  these  caravans  the  means  ?  (3.)  Where  were  other  Canaanitish  tribes 
driven?     (4.)  What  was  the  consequence? 

XVTL — (1.)  What  do  we  read  in  the  Bible  concerning  the  Phoenicians? 


The   Phoenician  Confederacy.  129 

(2.)  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  assisted  in  building  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem. (3.)  Solomon  and  Hiram  joined  in  sending  colonies  into 
Syria,  where  they  planted  settlements  which  afterward  became  pros- 
perous cities. 

XVIII. — (l.j  The  Phoenician  states  were  destined  to  experience 
the  fate  of  all  luxurious  and  arrogant  communities.  (2.)  The 
wealthy  city  of  Tyre  became  the  most  powerful  of  the  confederacy, 
and  often  assumed  control  over  the  rest. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  aristocracy  oppressed  the  poorer  people,  and 
bought  slaves,  to  perform  every  kind  of  labor.  (2.)  They  hired 
mercenary  soldiers,  to  spread  their  dominion  over  weaker  nations. 

XX. — (1.)  The  increase  of  luxury  was  fatal  to  the  peace  and 
existence  of  the  state.  (2.)  The  riches  of  Phoenician  merchants, 
and  splendor  of  their  cities,  excited  the  envy  of  more  powerful  states. 
(3.)  Tyre,  the  capital,  was  at  last  captured  and  plundered  by  the 
conqueror  Alexander. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  merchants  of  Phoenicia  succeeded  in  building 
up  a  wealthy  confederacy,  and  spread  their  name  and  power  to  all 
parts  of  the  world,  as  navigators  and  merchants.  (2.)  They  erred 
in  trusting  all  labor  to  slaves,  and  hiring  strangers  to  defend  their 
cities.  (3.)  They  had  no  free  and  independent  citizens  to  support 
the  commonwealth. 

XXII.^(1.)  Phoenician  arts  and  enterprise  were  of  great  im- 
portance in  civilizing  distant  countries.  (2.)  Many  colonies  of 
Tyre  continued  to  flourish  long  after  the  great  city  itself  had  fallen 
to  decay. 

(2.)  What  did  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  do?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  Solomou  anj 
Hiram  ? 

XVIII.— (1.)  To  what  were  the  Phoenician  states  destined?  (2.)  What  did 
the  city  of  Tyre  become  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  What  did  the  aristocracy  do?     (2.)  What  did  they  hire? 

XX.— (1.)  What  is  said  about  luxury?  (-2.)  What  results  took  place? 
(3.)  What  was  the  fate  of  Tyre  ? 

XXI. — (1.)  What  did  the  merchants  of  Phoenicia  succeed  in  doing? 
(2.)  What  error  did  they  commit?     (3.)  What  was  tlie  result? 

XXn.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Phoenician  arts  and  enterprise?  (2.)  What 
is  remarked  of  colonies  ? 

6* 


CHAPTER   IV. 

THE      CARTHAGINIAN      COMMERCIAL      STATES. 

I. — (1.)  Carthage  was  planted  on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa, 
where  Tunis  now  stands  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  (2.)  Its  found- 
ers were  a  colony  of  Ptioeuicians,  who  emigrated  from  Tyre,  (3.) 
The  settlers  were  principally  merchants,  with  their  families  and 
slaves.  (4.)  They  hired  land  from  native  savages,  who  claimed  its 
possession.  (5.)  These  savages  lived  in  tribes,  some  being  nomadic, 
and  others  settled  in  villages. 

II.- -(1.)  The  savages  who  lived  in  villages  were  afterward  made 
subject  to  the  colonists,  when  the  latter  increased  in  power. 
(2.)  The  wild  tribes  would  not  submit,  but  retreated  into  the  wil- 
derDe3^,  with  their  flocks  and  herds. 

III. — (1.)  As  the  settlement  of  Carthage  began  to  prosper,  many 
emigrants  came  from  Tyre,  and  other  Phoenician  cities,  to  join  the 
first  colonists.  (2,)  The  mercantile  class  continued  to  be  the 
wealthiest  and  most  influential  part  of  the  community.  (3.)  Mem- 
bers of  this  class  owned  large  tracts  of  land,  which  they  let,  for  cul- 
tivation in  farms,  (4.)  The  rest  of  the  community  was  composed 
of  professional  persons,  manufacturers,  laborers,  hired  soldiers  and 
uiariners. 

IV. — (1.)  The  Carthaginians  copied,  in  some  respects,  the  politi- 
cal institutions  of  older  Phrenician  cities.  (2.)  They  formed  a 
mixed  republican  government,  partly  democratic  and  partly  aristo- 
cr.itic. 

I._(l.)  Where  was  Carthage  planted?  (2.)  Who  were  its  founders? 
(3.)  What  were  these  settlers?  (4.)  What  did  they  do?  "iA  What  of  the 
native  savages  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  occurred  to  the  village  savages?  (2.)  What  did  the  wild 
trilies  do  ? 

III.— (1.)  What  took  place  after  the  settlement  began  to  prosper?  (2.)  What 
did  the  mercantile  class  continue  to  be?  (3.)  What  did  its  members  own? 
(4.)  How  was  the  rest  of  the  community  composed? 

IV.— (1.)  What  did  the  Carthaginians  copy?     (2.)  What  did  they  form? 
130 


The  Carthaginian  Commercial  States.         131 

V. — (1.)  They  chose  two  chief  magistrates  or  judges,  called 
suffetes,  who  presided  over  the  state,  with  limited  powers.  (2.)  They 
also  organized  a  senate,  selected  from  leading  families  of  wealth  and 
merit. 

VI. — (1.)  This  senate  consisted  of  several  liundred  persons 
(2.)  Out  of  the  senate  was  afterward  chosen  a  smaller  body,  to 
serve  as  a  select  council.  (3.)  The  two  suffetes  were  chosen  for 
life,  but  were  subject  in  many  respects  to  the  council  and  senate. 

VII. — (1.)  When  the  senate  was  elected  by  the  assembled  people, 
it  appointed  from  its  own  body  a  number  of  committees,  to  which 
was  intrusted  the  charge  of  all  public  business.  (2.)  These  com- 
mittees consisted  each  of  five  senators,  and  from  them  were  chosen 
a  select  body  or  council,  called  the  gerusia.  (3.)  Members  of  the 
gerusia  held  office  for  life. 

VIII. — (1.)  Tlie  select  council  first  prepared  all  business^  to  be 
deliberated  upon  in  the  senate.  (2.)  In  connection  with  the  senate, 
it  made  appointments  to  office,  and  controlled  the  aff"airs  of  state  iu 
peace  and  war. 

IX. — (1.)  Nest  to  the  office  of  suffete  was  that  of  general. 
(2.)  This  officer  was  nominated  by  the  select  council,  and  elected 
by  the  senate  and  assembly  of  the  people.  (3.)  Commissioners 
were  appointed  to  attend  the  generals,  as  advisers  and  paymasters. 

X. —  (1.)  The  settlement  of  disputes  between  citizens  was  intrusted 
to  magistrates  elected  by  the  people.  (2.)  There  was  a  principal 
tribunal,  composed  of  wealthy  citizens  who  had  previously  held 
offices  of  trust  in  tlie  government,     (3.)  The  members  of  this  su- 

V.— (1.)  What  did  they  choose  ?     (2.)  What  did  they  constitute  ? 

VI. — (1.)  Of  whom  did  the  senate  consist?  {'1.)  What  was  afterward 
chosen?     (.3.)   What  is  said  of  the  suffetes  f 

VII.— (1.)  What  did  liie  senate  do  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  these  committees' 
(8.)   How  long  did  members  of  the  gerusia  hold  office? 

Vin.  — (1.)  What  did  the  select  council  do?     (2.)  What  else? 

IX.— (1.)  What  was  next  to  the  office  of  suffete?  (2.)  How  was  this  officer 
appointed?     (3.)  Who  attended  the  generals?  , 

X.— (1.)  Who  were  judges  in  Carthage?  (2.)  What  principal  tribunal  was 
there  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  members  ? 


1^2  History  of  Governments. 

preme  court  were  at  first  chosen  for  life,  but  became  dangerous  to 
the  state  as  an  oligarchy.  (4.)  Their  term  of  office  was  afterward 
limited  to  one  year. 

XI. — (1.)  When  Carthage  was  established,  its  citizens  imitated 
their  Phoeniciai.  ancestors,  by  sending  out  colonists  to  make  new 
fiettlements  and  build  towns.  (2.)  These  colonies  depended  at  first 
on  Carthage,  but  soon  afterward  became  independent  allies. 

XII. — (1.)  The  Carthaginians  made  war  by  means  of  merce- 
naries, against  the  neighboring  nomadic  tribes,  under  patriarchal 
chiefs.  (2.)  Many  of  these  tribes  were  reduced  to  servitude,  or 
made  to  pay  tribute  to  Carthage. 

XIII. — (1.)  Colonies  planted  by  the  Carthaginians  became 
more  or  less  noted  for  their  own  importance.  (2.)  They  were 
always  confederated  with  the  principal  city,  and  ready  to  assist  her. 
(3.)  Some  of  them  were  governed  by  officers  appointed  by  the 
senate  of  Carthage,  but  most  of  them  were  separate  republics. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  Carthaginian  government  constructed  large 
fleets,  and  employed  pov/erful  armies,  for  purposes  of  defence  and  to 
extend  their  territory.  (2.)  Soldiers  were  enlisted  from  other 
nations,  or  wild  tribes,  and  paid  by  the  state.  (3.)  Captives  taken 
in  battle,  and  slaves  bought  in  the  market,  comprised  most  of  the 
common  laborers.  (4.)  These  persons  were  employed  to  make  roads 
and  other  public  works,  and  to  row  the  war-ships. 

XV. — (1.)  The  Carthaginians  forced  all  subject  nations  to  pay 
tribute  in  slaves,  cattle,  corn,  or  other  products.     (2.)  The  govern- 

(4.)  How  was  their  terra  of  office  limited  ? 

XI. — (1.)  How  did  the  Carthaginians  imitate  the  Phoenicians  ?  (2.)  What 
about  these  colonies  ? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  their  making  war?     (2)  What  was  the  result  ? 

XIIL— (1.)  For  what  did  Carthaginian  colonies  become  noted?  (2.)  What 
lelation  did  they  bear  to  Carthage  ?     (3.)  How  were  they  governed? 

XIV. — (1.)  What  did  the  Carthaginian  government  do?  (2.)  How  were  the 
forces  organized  ?  (3.)  Who  comprised  the  laborers?  (4.)  How  were  they 
employed  ? 

XV.— (1.)  What  did  the  Carthaginians  do  to  subject  nations?  (2.)  What 
did  the  government  own? 


The  Carthaginian  Commercial  States.  133 

meat  owned  mines  in  Spain,  which  were  worked   by  slaves,  under 
overseers. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  commerce  of  Carthage  was  carried  on  by  sea 
and  laud.  (2.)  The  merchants  hired  Arabian  and  African  wild 
vribes,  as  guards  of  their  caravans.  (3.)  The  government  grew 
enormously  rich  ;  but  tlie  people  were  heavily  taxed,  and  often 
severely  oppressed  by  oligarchies. 

XVII. — (1.)  Oligarchies  differ  from  aristocracies  mainly  in  the 
number  of  persons  exercising  power.  (2.)  An  aristocratic  state  is 
one  where  a  class  of  the  people  have  exclusive  power  to  elect 
governors  and  make  laws.  (3.)  An  oligarchal  state  is  one  where 
a  few  families,  or  a  few  individuals,  of  a  class,  possess  this  exclusive 
power. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  states  often 
became  oligarchal,  from  a  small  number  of  influential  men  usurping 
authority.  (2.)  Such  usurpation  generally  resulted  in  open  war 
between  different  classes  and  parties. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  Carthaginian  state  experienced  domestic  trou- 
bles during  its  greatest  commercial  prosperity.  (2.)  Its  citizens 
quarrelled  among  themselves,  and  the  state  fell  a  prey  to  disorder. 

XX. — (1.)  The  Carthaginians  became  involved  in  three  succes- 
•sive  wars  against  the  Romans.  (2.)  The  public  treasures  failed, 
and  the  government  at  length  yielded  to  foreign  conquerors.  (3.) 
Carthage  fell  from  the  position  of  a  flourishing  commercial  state, 
and  became  a  city  of  ruins  and  poverty. 

XXI. — (1.)    Thus,   a  small  colony,  of  emigrant  traders,  grew 

XVI. — (1.)  How  was  Carthaginian  commerce  carried  on?  (2.)  What  did 
tlie  mercliants  do?     (3.)  Wiiat  was  the  condition  of  tlie  state  ? 

XVn. — (1.)  How  do  oligarchies  differ  from  aristocracies  ?  (2.)  What  is  au 
aristocratic  state?     (3.)  What  is  an  oligarchal  state  ? 

XVni.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Phoenician  and  Carthaginian  states?  (2.)  In 
what  did  .such  usurpation  usually  result? 

XIX.— (1.)  What  did  the  state  experience  ?     (2.)   What  took  place? 

XX. — (1.)  In  what  did  the  Carthaginians  become  involved?  (2.)  What  r« 
suited?     (3.)  What  was  the  fate  of  Carthage? 

XXI. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  small  colony  of  emigrant  traders? 


134  History  of  Governments. 

up  into  a  great  commonwealth,  controlling  rich  cities  and  subject 
provinces.  (2.)  It  became  unjust  to  other  nations,  oppressed  the 
weak,  and  reduced  tribes  and  communities  of  freemen  to  slavery. 
(3.)  The  consequence  was,  that  disease  and  disunion  undermined 
its  power,  and  its  merchants  and  nobles  passed  away,  with  their 
possessions. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE      GRECIAN      TRIBES. 

I. — (1.)  The  Grecians  are  known  in  history  as  communities  of 
men  who  occupied  cities  and  small  territories.  (2.)  They  were 
originally  savage  tribes,  wandering  as  nomads  over  the  country 
which  afterward  became  divided  among  civilized  states. 

II. — (1.)  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Greece  subsisted  on  fruits 
and  roots.  (2.)  Their  clothing  was  formed  of  bark,  grass,  or  the 
skins  of  animals.  (3.)  The  most  intelligent  of  the  wild  nations 
thus  existing  was  called  the  Hellenes. 

III. — (1.)  The  Hellones  consisted  of  four  tribes  or  branches. 
(2.)  These  four  were  called  lonians,  Dorians,  JEolians  and  Achae- 
ans.  (3.)  From  these  descended  the  Grecian  people,  afterward 
variously  divided. 

IV". — (1.)  The  two  first-mentioned  tribes,  lonians  and  Dorians, 
were  able  to  absorb  the  others.  (2.)  The  Grecian  people  became 
classed,  in  later  times,  as  Doric  and  Ionic.     (3.)  The  Dorian  Greeks 

(2.)  What  did  it  become  ?    (3.)  What  was  the  consequence? 

I. —  (1.)  How  are  the  Grecians  known  in  liistory  ?  (2.)  What  was  their  ori- 
ginal condition? 

II.--(1.)  On  what  did  the  earliest  Grecians  suVjsist ?  (2.)  What  was  their 
clothing?     (a.)  W^iat  was  the  most  intelligent  tribe  called? 

m. — (1.)  Of  what  did  the  Hellenes  consist?  (2.)  What  were  these  tribes 
called?     (3.)  Who  were  their  descendants? 

IV. —  (I.)  What  is  said  of  the  first-mentitned  tribes?  (2.)  How  were  the 
Grecians  afterward  classed  ?     (3.1  What  is  said  of  the  Dorian  Greeks  ? 


The  Grecian  Tribes.  135 

were  more  simple  in  manners  iind  partial  to  old  customs.     (4.)  The 
Ionic  were  given  to  change  and  excitement. 

V. — (I.)  The  different  dispositions  of  these  two  leading  tribes 
influenced  the  political  partitions  of  the  people.  (2.)  Communities 
settled  as  civilized  dwellers  in  cities,  were  each  regulated  by  laws 
adapted  to  its  members. 

VI. — (1.)  All  the  Grecian  states  or  communities  possessed  free 
constitutions.  (2.)  By  free  constitutions  the  people  were  able,  in  a 
greater  or  less  -degree,  to  call  their  rulers  to  account.  (3.)  They 
were  always  republican  in  spirit,  though  sometimes  democratic, 
sometimes  aristocratic,  and  sometimes  monarchal. 

VII. — (1.)  The  Grecian  constitutions,  or  laws  regulating  their 
government,  differed  according  to  the  wants  and  numbers  of  every 
state.  (2.)  They  acknowledged  all  supreme  power  to  be  in  the 
citizens,  or  members  of  a  community. 

VIII. — (1.)  In  some  of  the  Grecian  states  all  the  citizens  were 
allowed  to  have  a  voice  in  public  affairs.  (2.)  States  of  this  kind 
were  denominated  democracies,  or  republics  where  the  whole  people 
exercised  power. 

IX. — (1.)  In  other  states,  the  laws  were  made,  and  government 
administered,  by  members  of  certain  families,  or  by  certain  classes  of 
the  people.     (2.)  These  bodies-politic  were  called  aristocracies. 

X. — (1.)  In  a  Grecian  democracy,  all  the  people  met  and  parti- 
cipated in  the  popular  assemblies.      (2.)   Every  citizen,   whether 


(4.)  What  was  the  character  of  Ionian  Greeks  ? 

v.— (1.)  What  did  the  different  dispositions  influence  ?  (2.)  How  were  set- 
tled communities  reguUited  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  all  Grecian  communities?  (2.)  What  were  the 
people  able  to  do  ?     (3.)  What  were  they  in  spirit  ? 

Vn. — (1.)  How  did  Grecian  constitutions  differ?  (2.)  What  did  they  all 
acknowledge? 

VIII. — (1.)  What  was  allowed  in  some  states?  (2.)  What  were  such 
states  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  othei  states?     (2.)   What  were  such  called  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  Grecian  democracy?     (2.)  What  privilege  had 


136  History  of  Governments. 

poor  or  rich,  could  vote  in  these  assemblies.  (3.)  The  magistrates 
of  a  true  democracy  were  taken  from  all  classes  of  citizens,  without 
distinction. 

XI. — (1.)  In  a  Grecian  aristocracy,  the  wealthier  classes  pos- 
sessed exclusive  or  superior  privileges  and  authority.  (2.)  In  some 
aristocracies,  the  highest  dignities  of  the  state  were  continued  from 
father  to  son,  in  a  few  leading  families. 

XII. — (1.)  In  an  aristocracy,  the  higher,  or  ruling  class,  con- 
sisted of  citizens  who  were  owners  of  landed  estates,  or  else  of  those 
who  claimed  descent  from  leading  warriors  or  persons  of  dignity  in 
ancient  times.  (2.)  Sometimes  the  possession  of  wealth,  in  money 
or  land,  and  likewise  superiority  of  birth,  were  necessary  to  consti- 
tute an  aristocratic  family. 

XIII. — (1.)  Such  families  could  raise  horses  and  maintain  sol- 
diers for  the  state  service.  (2.)  They  often  managed  to  keep  the 
magistracies  and  offices  of  justice  in  their  own  hands.  (3.)  When 
this  was  the  case,  the  republic  became  a  real  aristocracy. 

XrV. — (1  )  The  possession  of  wealth  by  a  few  families  gave  them 
the  power  to  buy  lands.  (2.)  The  soil  thus  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 
limited  number  of  owners.  (3.)  The  poorer  classes  were  only  able 
to  occupy  lands  by  permission  of  owners,  and  by  paying  a  yearly 

sum  as  rent. 

XV. — (1.)  Mechanical  trades  and  other  occupations,  more  or 
less  laborious,  were  at  first  carried  on  by  slaves.  (2.)  Citizens 
who  possessed  no  land  were  obliged   to   become   mechanics,  like 


eterv  citizen?     (3.)  Whence  were  magistrates  taken? 

XI. (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  Grecian  aristocracy?  (2.)  What  was  the  cha- 
racter of  some  aristocracies? 

XII.— (1.)  Who  were  the  ruling  class  in  an  aristocracy?  (2.)  What  was, 
sometimes  requisite  ? 

Xin. (1.)  What  could  such  families  do?  (2.)  How  did  they  often  man- 
age ?     (3  )   What  was  the  consequence  ? 

XrV. (].)  What  power  did  wealth  give?     (2.)  Into  what  hands  did   the 

soil  Jail?     (3.)   How  were  the  poorer  classes  affected  by  this  ? 

XV.— (1.)  Who  first  carried  on  mechanical  trades?  (2.)  What  were  land 
less  citizens  obliged  to  do? 


The  Grecian  Tribes.  137 

slaves,  or  to  serve  the  higher  class  and  the  state,  as  laborers  and 
soldiers, 

XVI. — (IJ  AH  inhabitants  of  a  Grecian  state  or  city  were  not 
considered  to  be  citizens.  (2.)  The  right  of  citizenship  was  claimed 
on  certain  grounds,  defined  by  law  and  castom. 

XVII. — (1.)  In  some  communities,  the  right  to  be  called  a 
citizen,  and  to  enjoy  a  citizen's  privileges,  belonged  to  a  Greek 
whose  parents  had  both  been  citizens.  (2.)  In  others,  it  was  neces- 
sary that  a  person's  ancestors,  three  generations  back,  should  have 
been  citizens. 

XVIII. — (1.)  In  some  states,  citizenship  was  allowed  to  any 
man  whose  mother  was  born  on  the  soil  and  whose  parents  were 
free.  (2.)  Other  states  admitted  foreigners  to  the  rights  of  citizens 
by  special  laws  or  by  vote  of  the  people. 

XIX. — (1.)  In  some  Grecian  states,  the  inhabitants  of  a  chief 
town  or  city  were  allowed  the  privileges  of  citizenship,  and  the  resi- 
dents of  villages  and  the  surrounding  country  were  deprived  of  them. 
(2.)  In  others,  there  was  no  distinction  made  between  the  people 
of  a  town  and  the  rural  population. 

XX. — (1.)  Citizens  constituted  that  portion  of  the  free  people 
who  could  take  part  in  popular  meetings.  (2.)  They  might  speak 
and  vote  fur  officers  of  government,  and  on  public  affairs  brought 
before  them  for  deliberation.  (3.)  Citizens  of  towns  were  separated 
into  dwelling  districts,  or  wards.  (4.)  Rural  citizens  were  separated 
into  cantons,  or  neighborhoods. 

XVI. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  citizens?  (2.)  What  of  the  right  of 
cilizcnship  t 

XVn. — (1.)  What  constitutes  citizenship  in  soii.e  communities?  (2.)  What 
in  others? 

XVm. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  citizenship  in  some  states?  (2.)  How  did 
otlier  stales  admit  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  distinctions,  as  to  chief  cities?  (2.)  What  of 
other  states  without  such  distinctions  ? 

Tnr — (1.)  What  did  citizens  constitute?  (2.)  What  were  their  privileges' 
(8.)  How  were  cit'zens  of  towns  separated?  (4.)  How  w^re  rural  eitizea« 
separated  ? 


1^8  History  of  Governments. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  name  of  every  iitizen  was  registered  with  that 
of  the  ward  or  caaton  in  which  Le  resided.  (2.)  The  wealthier 
citizens  usually  lived  in  wards  or  quarters  by  themselves.  (3.)  Each 
citizen  was  taxed  for  the  support  of  government  according  to  the 
amount  of  fortune  which  he  possessed. 

XXII. — (1.)  Expenses  of  the  state  were  principally  borne  by 
owners  of  large  property  in  lands,  houses,  slaves  and  money.  (2.) 
The  whole  body  of  c'tizens  constituted  a  militia,  or  arSaed  force  of 
the  state.  (3.)  Each  was  obliged  to  contribute  a  certain  amount 
ana  kind  of  service  during  war. 

XXIII. — (1.)  Popular  assemblies  among  the  Greeks  were  com- 
posed of  all  citizens  who  chose  to  attend  them.  (2.)  In  early  times 
these  meetings  were  called  by  the  king,  chief,  or  other  leader  of  a 
tribe.  (3.)  At  a  later  day,  the  power  to  call  them  was  given  to 
some  special  magistrate. 

XXIV. — (1.)  Before  voting  on  important  matters,  and  for  offi- 
cers, the  citizens  were  sometimes  numbered.  (2.)  Absence  from  the 
place  of  voting  was  often  made  a  punishable  offence.  (3  )  It  was 
regarded  as  a  particular  duty  of  every  citizen  to  attend  the  public 
meeting  and  exercise  his  rights. 

XXV. —  (1.)  In  some  Grecian  cities  the  assemblies  were  regular 
mid  held  on  fixed  days.  (2.)  Extraordinary  and  special  meetings 
were  called  when  necessary. 

XXVI. — (1.)  The  business  brought  before  popular  assemblies  in 
Grecian  states  was  of  three  kinds.     (2.)  The  first  kind  embraced 


XXI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  citizens'  names?  (2.)  Where  did  wealthier  citi- 
zens live?     (3.)  How  were  citizens  taxed  ? 

XXII. — (1.)  How  were  state  expenses  borne?  (2.)  What  constituted  a 
militia?     (3.)   What  was  each  obliged  to  contribute  ? 

XXIII. — (1.)  How  were  popular  assemblies  composed?  (2.)  How  were 
these  first  convened  ?     (3.)  How  in  later  times? 

XXIV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  numbering  the  citizens  ?  (2.)  What  was  an 
offence  ?     (3.)  What  was  regarded  to  be  a  duty  ? 

XXV. — (1.)  When  were  assemblies  held?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  other 
meetings  ? 

XXVI. — (1.)  How  many  different  kinds  of  business  came  before  the  popular 
assemblies?     (2.)  What  did  the  first  kind  of  business  embrace  ? 


The  Grecian  Tribes.  139 

legislation,  or  passing  of  laws.  (3.)  The  second  related  to  the 
choice  of  magistrates.  (4.)  The  third  class  of  business  was  that 
of  deciding  questions  of  justice  and  right  between  citizens. 

XXVII. — (1.)  In  some  democratic  republics  of  Greece  the 
poor  citizens  were  often  possessed  of  dangerous  power.  (2.)  They 
received  pay  for  attending  assemblies,  and  sold  their  votes  to 
wealthy  candidates  for  election  to  office. 

XXVIII. —  (1.)  In  s-^me  cities,  the  popular  assembly  was  very 
seldom  called  together  ;  or  if  a  meeting  was  convened,  it  consisted 
of  select  persons.  (2.)  In  this  manner,  a  mixture  of  aristocratic  and 
democratic  government  was  formed. 

XXIX. — (1.)  In  most  Grecian  cities,  there  was  a  smaller  body 
selected  from  members  of  the  popular  assembly.  (2.)  This  smaller 
body  prepared  business  to  be  acted  upon  in  the  democratic  meeting. 
(3.)  It  was  called  a  council,  and  its  members  were  chosen  from 
leading  persons  in  each  profession  or  division  of  the  people.  (4.) 
This  council  was  chosen  to  act  during  one  year. 

XXX. — (1.)  In  many  communities  there  was  a  permanent  body 
of  citizens  formed,  instead  of  a  yearly  council.  (2.)  This  was  a 
senate,  or  body  of  elders,  who  were  obliged  to  be  of  a  certain  age. 

XXXI. — (1.)  Sometimes  a  senate  was  composed  of  the  most 
capable  and  honest  elders,  chosen  to  serve  during  life.  (2.)  Gene- 
rally  the  term  of  office  was  limited  to  one  or  more  years. 

(3.)  To  what  did  the  second  relate?     (4.)  The  third? 

XXVII.— (1.)  Wliat  was  often  the  case  iu  democratic  republics?  (2.)  What 
did  they  receive  and  do  ? 

XXVIII. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  assembly  in  some  cities?  (2.)  What 
was  formed  by  this  ? 

XXIX. — (1.)  What  was  selected  iu  most  Grecian  cities?  (2.)  What  did  this 
body  prepare?  (3.)  What  was  this  body  called ?  (4.)  For  how  long  time  was 
it  chosen  ? 

XXX. — (1  )  What  was  done  in  many  communities  ?  (2.)  What  was  this 
body? 

XXXI. — (1.)  What  was  the  character  of  the  senate?  (2.)  What  was  gene- 
rally its  term  of  authority  ? 


140  History  of  Governments. 

XXXII. — (1.)  The  assembly,  or  popular  gathering  of  every 
Grecian  cotriraunity  was  like  a  modern  town  meeting.  '^2.)  The 
council  of  leading  citizens,  or  senate,  was  like  a  board  of  aldermen, 
or  legislature,  at  the  present  day. 

XXXIII. — (1.)  Every  Grecian  city  had  a  certain  number  of 
magistrates,  (2.)  These  officers  exercised  various  powers,  and  per- 
formed different  duties.  (3.)  They  were  kept  distinct  from  priests, 
teacliers,  or  ambassadors.  (4.  J  Grecian  magistrates  were  usually 
answerable  to  the  people  for  their  conduct  while  in  office.  (5.)  In 
some  states  they  were  called  to  account  by  the  council  or  senate. 

XXXIV. — (I.)  In  most  of  the  Grecian  republics  all  magistrates 
were  chosen  by  the  people.  (2.)  In  a  few  it  was  customary  to  se- 
lect these  officers  from  one  or  more  leading  families,  in  hereditary 
succession.  (3.)  The  general  principle  was  election  by  the  people, 
from  the  most  popular  or  leading  men. 

XXXV. —  (1.)  In  many  communities  the  magistrates  were  elected 
by  casting  lots,  so  that  chance  decided  among  a  number.  (2.)  The 
lot  was  usually  employed  for  a  selection  of  two  out  of  a  number  of 
candidates. 

XXXVI. — (1.)  In  a  Grecian  democracy,  members  of  every  class 
of  ciiizens,  whether  rich  or  poor,  claimed  equal  votes.  (2.)  Wheu 
an  aristocratic  party  arose,  its  first  effort  was  to  limit  the  number 
and  classes  of  citizens  who  might  be  entitled  to  vote. 

XXXVII. — (1.)  Grecian  magistrates  did  not  receive  fixed  sala- 

XXXII. — (1.)  What  modern  institutions  did  a  Grecian  assembly  resemble  ? 
(2.)  What  did  a  Grecian  council  or  senate  resemble? 

XXXm.— (1.)  What  did  every  city  have?  (2.)  What  authority  did  they 
possess?  (.S.)  From  whom  were  they  distinct?  (4.)  To  whom  were  they  an- 
swerable ?     (5.)  Who  called  them  to  account  in  some  states? 

XXXIV. — (1.)  How  were  magistrates  generally  appointed?  (2.)  How  were 
they  selected  in  a  few  states?  (S.)  What  was  the  general  principle  of  their 
choice  ? 

XXXV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  magistrates  in  many  communities?  (2.)  For 
what  was  the  lot  usually  employed? 

XXXVL— (1.)  What  did  citizens  claim  in  a  democracy  ?  (2.)  What  was  the 
first  effort  of  an  aristocracy  ? 

XXXVn. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  pay  of  Grecian  magistrates?- 


The  Grecian  Tribes.  141 

ries  for  the  labors  they  performed.  (2.)  The  honor  of  being 
elected  was  considered  to  be  of  more  importance  than  gain.  (3.) 
Members  of  the  poorer  classes  were  seldom  able  or  willing  to  hold 
office. 

XXXVIII. — (1.)  When  a  few  families  gained  control  of  all  the 
assemblies,  they  were  able  to  have  the  magistrates  chosen  always 
from  their  own  members.  (2.)  The  state  then  became  an  oligarchy, 
as  before  explained.  (3.)  The  difference  between  an  oligarchic  and 
an  aristocratic  state  consisted  in  the  first  being  governed  by  a  few 
privileged  families,  and  the  second  oy  a  class  of  privileged  citizens. 

XXXIX. — (1.)  Magistrates  were  usually  chosen  for  a  limited 
terra,  such  as  one  year,  and  in  some  cases  for  only  half  a  year. 
(2.)  When  a  magist -ate  usurped  powers  not  belonging  to  his  office, 
or  refused  to  render  an  account  to  the  people,  he  was  called  a 
tyrant, 

XL. — (1.)  The  distinguishing  institutions  of  all  Grecian  repub- 
lics were  three  in  number.  (2.)  The  first  was  an  assembly  of  the 
people  ;  the  second,  a  smaller  council,  or  senate  ;  the  third,  an 
election  of  magistrates.  (3.)  Accordingly  as  the  popular  assembly 
possessed  more  or  less  power,  and  the  magistrates  were  cboseu  by 
a  greater  or  less  number  of  citizens,  the  state  became  a  democraty, 
an  arist(tcracy,  or  an  oligarchy, 

XLiI. — (1-)  Laws  enacted  in  popular  assemblies,  or  by  senates, 
were  committed  to  writing,  and  intrusted  to  the  keeping  of  officers 
(2.)  Popular  assemblies  acted  as  courts  of  justice  in  certain  cases 

(2.)  What  was  the  honor  of  election  considered  ?  {."J.)  Who  seldom  held 
office? 

XXXVm.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  few  leading  fumilies?  (2.)  What  did 
the  state  then  become?  ('!.)  What  is  the  difference  between  an  oHgarclnj  and 
an  aristocracy  ? 

XXXIX. — (1.)  For  how  long  a  time  were  magistrates  chosen?  (2.)  What 
was  a  magistrate  called  who  assumed  too  much  power  ? 

XL.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  distinguishing  institutions?  (2.)  What  were  thej  ? 
(3.)  What  did  their  modifications  productJ  ? 

XLI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Grecian  hrvs?  (2.)  What  of  popular  asseij 
blies  ? 


142  History  of  Governments. 

(3.)  They  gave  decisious  ia  accordance  with  the  laws,  and  by  a 
majority  of  votes. 

XIjII. — (1.)  The  popular  assemblies,  acting  as  courts,  decided 
questions  and  punished  offences  which  affected  the  community  as  a 
body  politic  or  social.  (2.)  Disputes  between  individuals,  or  other 
private  grievances,  were  passed  upon  by  smaller  courts,  consisting 
of  a  number  of  citizens. 

XIjIII. — (1.)  Members  of  the  smaller  courts  were  selected  by 
lot,  from  the  popular  assembly.  (2.)  They  were  required  to  be 
thirty  years  of  age,  of  good  reputation,  and  not  indebted  for  taxes 
to  the  state. 

XLIV. — (1.)  The  larger  courts  were  sometimes  composed  of 
many  hundreds  of  citizens.  (2.)  They  listened  to  the  accusers  and 
defendants,  to  the  counsel,  styled  orators,  and  to  the  witnesses,  and 
then  made  decision.  (3.)  Courts  of  this  kind  among  the  Greeks 
were  like  juries  in  modern  times,  except  that  they  were  more 
numerous. 

XLV. — •(!.)  There  were  other  inferior  tribunals  connected  with 
public  matters.  (2.)  These  made  preliminary  examinations  in  mat- 
ters of  dispute  or  offence,  and  disposed  finally  of  simple  cases. 

XLVI. — (1.)  Every  Grecian  commonwealth  was  an  independent 
republic,  having  its  own  constitution,  magistrates  and  laws.  (2.) 
The  principal  states  entered  into  alliance  and  formed  a  confederacy. 
(3.)  The  confederation  was  often  interrupted  by  wars  between  two 
or  more  states. 

(3.)  How  did  these  assemblies  give  decisions  ? 

XIjII. — (1.)  Wliat  did  these  popular  assemblies  do?  (2.)  How  were  disputes 
between  citizens  passed  upon  ? 

XlilU. — (1.)  How  were  smaller  courts  formed  ?  (2.)  What  were  members 
required  to  be? 

XLIV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  larger  courts?  (2.)  What  was  their 
method  of  proceeding?  (3.)  What  modern  body  did  the  Grecian  popular 
courts  resemble  ? 

XLV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  other  tr-bunals  ?     (2.)  What  was  their  business? 

XLVI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  every  Grecian  commonwealth?  (2.)  What 
was  done  by  the  principal  states?  (3.)  How  was  the  confederation  often 
interrupted  ? 


The  Republic  of  Athens.  143 

XLVII. — (1.)  The  confederacy  of  Grecian  republics  was  known 
as  the  Amphictyonic  League.  (2.)  It  was  represented  in  a  gene- 
ral convention,  composed  of  delegates  chosen  by  the  leading  states. 
(3.)  These  delegates  met  in  council  twice  every  year,  at  Thermopylae 
and  Delphi,  two  of  the  Grecian  cities. 

XL VIII. — (1.)  The  Amphictyonic  Council  comprised  the  repre- 
sentatives of  twelve  principal  Grecian  cities.  (2.)  Each  city  sent 
ten  chosen  citizens  to  the  meetings.  (3.)  This  council  decided  im- 
portant questions  between  different  states.  (4.)  It  had  charge  of 
the  Temple  of  Delphi,  which  was  the  chief  religious  shrine  of 
Greece. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE    REPUBLIC    OF    ATHENS. 

I. — (1.)  The  state  of  Athens  originated  in  a  colony  of  Egyptians, 
under  Cecrops,  their  leader.  (2.)  This  colony  united  with  savage 
inhabitants  of  the  country  and  captives  taken  in  battle.  (3.)  It 
existed  as  a  republic,  under  mixed  forms  of  government,  during 
seventeen  hundred  years. 

11. — (I.)  Cecrops,  the  founder,  exercised  authority  as  the  head, 
or  king  of  the  state.  (2.)  He  was  succeeded  by  hereditary  kings, 
limited  in  their  jurisdiction. 


XLVII — (1.)  What  was  the  Grecian  confederacy  called  ?  (2.)  How  was  it 
represented  ?     (3.)   Where  did  the  delegates  meet  ? 

XLVm — (1.)  What  did  the  Amphictyonic  Council  comprise?  (2.)  How 
many  delegates  did  eacli  city  send?  (3.)  What  was  the  business  of  the  coun^ 
oil  ?     (4.)  Of  what  had  it  charge  ? 

I.— (1.)  What  was  the  origin  of  Athens?  (2.)  With  whom  did  this  colony 
unite?     (3.)  How  long  was  it  a  republic? 

II.— (1.)  What  was  the  authority  of  Cecrops?  (2.)  By  whom  was  he  .sue 
ceeded  ? 


144  History  of  Governments. 

III.  —(1.)  Cecrcps  divided  tlw  population  into  classes  of  citizens 
and  slaves.  (2.)  A  third  class  was  afterward  formed,  consisting  of 
foreigners  who  arrived  at  Athens  after  the  settlement.  (3.)  The 
names  of  all  the  people  were  registered,  under  the  heads  of  citizens, 
strangers,  or  slaves. 

rV. — (1.)  At  the  death  of  a  popular  king,  called  Codrus,  the 
people  of  Athens  altered  and  limited  the  powers  of  their  chief 
magistrate.  (2.)  They  deputed  a  wise  citizen,  named  Solon,  to 
prepare  for  them  a  constitution,  or  frame  of  government. 

V. — (1.)  Solon  separated  the  class  of  citizens  into  four  sub- 
divisions. (2.)  These  persons,  with  their  descendants,  he  denomi- 
nated/ree?we?i  o/ ^l^^ens.  (3.)  They  were  privileged  to  assemble  in 
town  meeting,  to  make  laws  and  choose  magistrates.  (4.)  Each 
freeman  was  obliged  to  pay  a  tax  to  the  state,  in  proportion  to  the 
value  of  his  property. 

VI. — (1.)  The  class  of  strangers  in  Athens  comprised  all  foreign- 
ers, and  those  born  in  Athens  who  were  neither  citizens  nor  slaves. 
(2.)  These  strangers  were  required  to  wear  certain  badges,  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  citizens.  (3.)  Every  stranger  was  per- 
mitted to  select  some  citizen  as  a  protector,  who  was  called  hig 
patron. 

VII, — (1.)  It  was  the  duty  of  a  patron  to  guard  the  stranger 
who  selected  him  from  all  oppression  or  illegal  practices.  (2.)  A 
stranger  was  obliged  to  pay  the  same  tax  as  a  citizen.  (3.)  An 
extra  sum  was  required  from  the  whole  body  of  strangers,  toward 
the  support  of  government. 

III. — (1.)  What  division  did  Cecrops  make?  (2.)  What  class  was  afterward 
formed?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  citizens' names  ? 

IV.— (1.)  What  did  the  people  do  at  the  death  of  Codrus?  (2.)  Who  was 
deputed  as  a  law-maker  ? 

v.— (1.)  What  divisions  did  Solon  make?  (2.)  What  were  these  persons 
denominated?  (3.)  How  were  they  privileged  ?  (4.)  What  was  each  obliged 
to  do? 

VI. — (1.)  What  did  the  class  of  strangers  comprise  in  Athens?  (2.)  What 
was  required  of  them  ?     (3.)  What  was  every  stranger  permitted  ? 

VII. — (1.)  What  was  a  patron's  duty?  (2.)  What  was  a  stranger  obligH 
to  pay?     (3.)  What  extra  demand  was  made  upon  strangers? 


The  Republic  of  Athens.  1 45 

VIII. — (1.)  The  slaves,  who  constituted  the  third  class  of  the 
Athenian  population,  were  not  obliged  to  pay  a  tax,  and  were  not 
considered  to  have  any  rights.  (2.)  They  were  allowed  to  earn 
money  for  themselves,  with  permission  of  their  masters  or  owners. 
(3.)  They  were  permitted  to  buy  their  freedom,  if  able  at  any 
time. 

IX. — (1.)  Slaves  consisted  of  captives  taken  in  battle,  or  bought 
from  traders.  (2.)  They  were  natives  of  various  countries  then 
known,  and  of  all  complexions,  (3.)  They  were  occupied  in  culti- 
vating land,  building,  quarrying,  carrying  burdens,  and  all  other 
laborious  occupations.  (4.)  They  were  also  employed  as  domestic 
servants  of  citizens  and  strangers. 

X. — (1.)  When  population  grew  more  numerous,  the  four  sub- 
divisions of  citizens  were  partitioned  again.  (2.)  In  later  days,  the 
voting  people  of  Athens  comprised  ten  tribes.  (3.)  Each  of  these 
ten  tribes  was  entitled  to  select,  from  its  members,  certain  oflScers  of 
the  state. 

XI. — (1.)  Every  tribe  chose  fifty  of  its  members  as  representa- 
tives in  a  state  council.  (2.)  The  state  council,  or  senate,  consisted 
of  five  hundred  citizens.  (3.)  Senators  were  chosen  either  by  lot 
or  by  vote  of  their  fellows  in  every  tribe. 

XII. — (1)  When  senators  were  to  be  chosen  by  lot,  the  names 
of  all  freemen  in  a  tribe  were  engraved  on  small  brass  plates  and 
placed  in  an  urn.  (2.)  Into  another  urn  wore  dropped  the  same 
number  of  beans,  all  of  which  were  black  except  fifty.     (3.)  Then 

Vm.— (!•)  What  is  said  of  slaves  in  Athens?  (2.)  What  were  they  al- 
lowed?   (3.)  What  else  were  they  permitted? 

IX. — (1.)  Of  what  persons  did  slaves  consist?  (2.)  Of  what  nation  and 
color  were  they?  (3.)  How  were  they  occupied?  (4.)  How  were  they  other- 
wise employed  ? 

X.— (1.)  What  took  place  when  population  increased?  (2.)  How  many 
tribes  or  wards  of  voters  did  the  citizens  afterward  comprise  ?  (3.)  To  what 
was  each  tribe  entitled  ? 

XI. — (].)  What  did  every  tribe  choose  ?  (2.)  How  many  members  had  the 
senate?     (3.)  How  were  senators  chosen ? 

XII. — (1.)  What  was  done  when  senators  were  to  be  chosen  by  lot  ?  (2.) 
What  were  dropped  into  another  urn  ?     (3.)  What  was  furthermore  done  ? 

7 


146  History  of  Governments, 

one  name  and  one  bean  were  taken  oat  at  the  same  time,  till  all 
were  drawn.  (4.)  Every  citizen  whose  name  came  out  with  a  whita 
bean  was  then  declared  a  senator. 

XIII. — (1.)  Important  matters  relating  to  war  and  peace,  were 
first  brought  for  discussion  before  the  senate.  (2.)  Senators  were 
usually  paid  a  certain  sum  for  every  day  of  service. 

XrV. — (1.)  For  purposes  of  war  and  taxation,  the  Athenian 
citizens  were  divided  into  four  classes,  according  to  their  income. 
(2.)  Every  member  of  either  of  the  two  wealthier  classes  was  re- 
quired to  keep  and  provide  a  horse  and  soldier.  (3.)  Citizens  of 
the  third  class  were  obliged  to  serve  as  heavy  armed,  and  citizens  of 
the  fourth  class  as  light  armed  soldiers,  or  as  mariners  and  oarsmen 
of  the  fleet. 

XV. — (1.)  A  chief  magistrate,  called  an  Archon,  was  elected  by 
the  citizens,  to  serve  during  life.  (2.)  The  ofiBce  was  at  first  made 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Codrus,  the  last  king,  (3,)  Archons 
were  accountable  to  the  people  for  their  conduct. 

XVI. — (1,)  The  archon's  term  of  office  was  afterward  reduced 
to  ten  years.  (2.)  At  a  later  period,  the  government  of  a  single 
chief  ruler  was  changed  for  that  of  a  board,  or  council  of  nine 
magistrates,  each  elected  for  a  single  year. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  first  of  the  nine  magistrates  was  still  called 
the  archon.  (2.)  He  presided  over  the  board,  and  the  year  in 
which  he  served  was  called  by  his  name.  (3.)  The  second  magis- 
trate had  the  title  of  king,  or  Basileus.     (4.)  He  presided  over 

(4.)  What  was  the  result  of  the  drawing? 

Xin. — (1.)  What  matters  did  the  senate  first  discuss?  (2.)  What  did  sena- 
tors usually  receive  ? 

XIV. — (1.)  How  were  Athenian  citizens  divided?  (2.)  What  was  every 
member  of  the  wealthier  classes  required  to  do?  (3.)  What  were  citizens  of 
the  third  and  fourth  classes  obliged  to  do  ? 

XV,— (1.)  What  was  an  Archon?  (2.)  What  was  the  office  at  first  ?  (3.) 
To  whom  were  archons  accountable  ? 

XVI. — (1.)  To  how  many  years  was  the  archon's  term  reduced  ?  (2.)  What 
was  done  at  a  later  period  ? 

XVn. — (1.)  What  was  the  first  of  these  magistrates  called?  (2.)  What  is 
said  of  him  ?     (3)  What  title  had   the   second  archon  ?     (4.)  What   was  his 


The  Republic  of  Athens.  147 

religrons  matters  in  the  state.  (5.)  The  tliird  magistrate  was 
called  the  Pokmarch.  (6.)  He  superintended  tiie  military  affairs 
of  the  republic. 

XVIIL— (1.)  The  remaining  head  magistrates,  six  in  number, 
presided  as  judges  over  courts  of  the  people.  (2.)  The  body,  or 
board  of  nine,  formed  a  supreme  council  of  state. 

XIX. — (1.)  These  magistrates,  and  all  other  elected  officers, 
were  chosen  by  citizens  iu  their  assemblies.  (2.)  The  candidates 
for  office  were  almost  always  taken  from  the  two  wealthy  classes,  or 
the  middling  rank  of  citizens.  (3.)  The  fourth  class  shared  in  the 
rights  of  assembling  and  voting,  but  were  too  poor  to  hold  offices 
without  pay. 

XX. — (1.)  The  public  assembly  framed  the  laws,  elected  magis- 
trates, and  had  a  voice  in  all  matters  concerning  the  republic.  (2.) 
In  this  assembly,  or  popular  meeting,  every  citizen  fifty  years  old 
might  address  the  people. 

XXI. — (1.)  When  Athens  became  a  powerful  state,  the  popular 
assembly  numbered  twenty-one  thousand  persons.  (2.)  This  assem- 
bly of  the  people  was  called  the  Ecclesia. 

XXII. — (1.)  After  the  senate  was  formed,  from  delegates  chosen 
by  tribes,  all  public  matters  were  first  prepared  in  its  meetings. 
(2.)  After  having  been  sufficiently  debated  in  the  senate,  these  mat- 
ters were  submitted  to  popular  vote  in  the  Ecclesia. 

XXIII. — (1.)  The  highest  court  of  justice  in  Athens  was  called 
the  Areopagus.     (2  )  Its  members  were  chosen  out  of  the  wisest 

duty  ?     (5.)   What  was  the  third  archoii  called?     (6.)  What  was  his  V)usines9.* 

XVIII. — (1.)  What  did  the  remaining  archoiis  do  ?  (2.)  What  did  the  whole 
body  form  ? 

XIX. —  (1.)  How  were  tlie  magistrates  chosen?  (2.)  From  what  classes 
vrere  candidates  generally  taken?     (3.)  What  did  the  fourth  class  share? 

XX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  public  assembly?  (2.)  Who  might  address 
the  people  ? 

XXI. — (1.)  How  many  persons  were  in  the  popular  assembly?  (2.)  What 
was  this  meeting  called? 

XXII. — (1.)  What  took  place  after  the  senate  was  formed?  (2.)  'WTiat 
ROur.se  did  these  matters  take? 

XXni.— (1.)  What  was  the  Arcoparjtis ?     (2.)  Of  whom  was  it  composed? 


148  History  of  Governments. 

and  best  citizens  who  had  held  the  dignity  of  an  archon,  or  chief 
magistrate.  (3.)  The  meetings  of  this  court  were  held  in  the  open 
air.     (4.)  It  deliberated  on  all  causes  in  the  night  time, 

XXIV. — (1.)  The  areopagus  had  charge  of  the  public  treasury, 
and  guardianship  of  all  the  laws.  (2.)  It  exercised  supervision 
over  the  education  of  youth,  and  appointed  teachers  for  them. 
(3.)  It  had  authority  to  inquire  into  the  morals  and  habits  of  the 
people,  to  punish  disorderly  persons,  and  to  reward  sober  and  useful 
citizens. 

XXV. — (1.)  All  religious  ceremonies  were  regulated  by  the 
areopagus,  (2.)  It  possessed  authority  to  call  any  citizen  to  ac- 
count, and  make  him  declare  how  he  obtained  his  living  and  spent 
his  time. 

XXVI. — (1.)  Judges  of  the  areopagus  were  required  to  be  of  the 
strictest  integrity  and  morals,  (2.)  It  was  considered  to  be  a  high 
offence  for  one  of  them  to  be  seen  in  a  tavern,  and  they  were  ex- 
pected to  maintain  'at  all  times  a  grave  and  reserved  demeanor. 
(3.)  A  judge  who  became  iutoxicated  was  punished  sometimes  with 
death. 

XXVII. — (I.)  The  inferior  courts  of  the  people  were  com- 
posed of  a  greater  or  less  number  of  citizens,  chosen  by  lot.  (2.) 
Decisions  of  cases  were  generally  made  in  the  same  manner,  by 
drawing  black  and  white  beans.  (3.)  A  member  of  one  of  the 
courts  received  three  oholi,  or  five  pence,  for  hearing  a  case.  (4.) 
These  Athenian  courts  were  like  modern  juries,  but  more  numerous. 
(5.)  The  larger  ones  comprised  several  hundred  members  each. 


(3.)  Where  were  its  meetings  lield  ?     (4.)  Wiien  did  it  deliberate  ? 

XXIV.— (1.)  Ofwiiat  liad  this  court  cliarge?  (2.)  Wiiat  did  it  exercise! 
(3.)  Whiat  authority  had  the  areopagus? 

XXV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  religious  ceremonies  ?  (2.)  What  power  did 
the  areopagus  have  over  every  citizen  ? 

XXVI. — (1.)  What  were  members  of  this  court  required  to  be?  (2.)  What 
is  said  concerning  them?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  intoxication  in  an  areopagite 
judge  ? 

XXVn,— (1.)  How  were  the  inferior  courts  composed?  (2.)  How  were 
decisions  made?  (3.)  What  did  the  members  of  popular  courts  receive? 
(4,)  What  were  Athenian  courts  like  ?     (5.)   What  is  said  of  the  larger  ones  ? 


The  Republic  of  Athens.  149 

XXVIII. — (1.)  A  number  of  persons  were  authorized  to  attend 
every  court,  to  argue  the  suits  on  either  side.  (2.)  These  officials 
were  called  orators,  and  were  lilie  pleaders  of  law  in  modern  courts 
of  justice.  (3.)  Appeals  to  the  whole  people  could  be  made  from  a 
decision  of  any  court  except  the  supreme  tribunal  of  the  Areopagus. 

XXIX. — (1.)  Athens  continued  to  be  governed  by  archons, 
senate,  and  popular  assemblies,  till  a  citizen  named  Pisistratua 
usurped  supreme  power.  (2.)  His  sway  was  followed  by  a  period 
of  oligarchic  government,  in  which  thirty  self-appointed  magistrates 
held  all  the  chief  offices.  (3.)  The  period  of  their  control  was  called 
the  reign  of  the  thirty  tyrants. 

XXX. — (1.)  After  the  thirty  tyrants  fell,  Athenian  citizens  re- 
covered their  sway  in  assemblies  of  the  people.  (2.)  The  power 
of  the  populace  became  greater,  and  the  citizens  were  divided  into 
disorderly  factions. 

XXXI. — (1.)  At  this  period,  the  republic  of  Athens  was 
considered  to  be  a  complete  democracy.  (2.)  The  number  of 
freemen,  or  citizens  entitled  to  vote,  was  comparatively  small. 
(3.)  These  citizens  seldom,  if  ever,  exceeded  twenty-five  thousand, 
whilst  there  were  four  hundred  thousand  slaves,  who  had  no  rights 
at  all. 

XXXII. — (1.)  The  Athenian  people,  in  their  freest  days,  formed 
an  aristocratic  despotism.  (2.)  The  free  citizens,  who  were  twenty- 
five  thousand  in  number,  possessed  unlimited  authority  over  half  a 
million  of  slaves  and  foreigners. 

XXXIII. — (1.)  The  state  carried  in  itself  the  disease  which 

XXVm. — (1.)  Who  were  authorized  to  attend  courts?  (2.)  What  were 
these  officials  called,  and  what  were  tliey  like?  (3.)  What  is  said  of 
appeals  ? 

XXIX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Athenian  government?  (2.)  What  followed 
the  sway  of  Pisistratus?     (3.)  What  was  this  period  called? 

XXX. — (1.)  Wliat  followed  the  oligarchy?     (2.)   What  then  took  place? 

XXXL — (1.)  What  was  Athens  considered  to  be?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  the 
citizens?     (3.)  How  did  they  compare  in  number  with  the  slaves? 

XXXn. — (1.)  What  did  the  Athenian  people  form  ?  (2.)  How  was  ihia 
despotism  manifested  ? 

XXXm. — (1.)  What  is  here  remarked  concerning  the  Athenian  state? 


l^o  History  of  Governments. 

was  to  destroy  it.  (2.)  The  Athenian  people  became  tyrannical 
and  arrogant.  (3.)  The  voting  classes  were  divided  into  parties, 
and  the  rich  employed  their  wealth  to  oppress  the  poor,  or  purchase 
their  support  in  tae  assemblies. 

XXXIV. — (1.)  At  length,  Athens  became  involved  in  war  with 
other  republics  of  Greece,  and  her  citizens  were  deprived  of  their 
rights  and  privileges,  (2.)  The  commonwealth  fell  a  prey  to  dema- 
gogues at  home,  and  at  last  sank  under  the  military  despotism  of 
Alexander  the  Conqueror. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE     LACEDEMONIAN      REPUBLIC. 

I. — (1.)  The  Lacedemonian  or  Spartan  republic  owed  its  politi- 
cal organization  to  the  labors  of  a  law-giver  named  Lycurgus. 
(2.)  It  originated,  like  other  Grecian  states,  in  a  consolidation  of 
two  or  more  tribes  of  savage  people. 

II. — (1.)  The  chief  persons  of  the  commonwealth  were  two  ma- 
gistrates,  with  the  title  of  kings.  (2.)  They  were  generals  of  the 
republic,  in  time  of  war,  and  chief  priests  of  the  nation.  (3.)  Their 
authority  was  hereditary  in  two  braiiches  of  an  ancient  family. 
(4.)  It  was  restricted  by  laws  and  by  the  power  of  the  people. 

III. — (1.)  A  law-making  body,  called  the  senate,  constituted  a 
national  council.     (2.)  Its  members  were  elected  by  the  Spartan 

(2.)  What  did  the  people  become?  (8.)  What  divisions  followed,  and  what 
effects? 

XXXrV. — (1.)  What  was  the  result  of  this  condition  of  affairs?  (2.)  What 
was  the  fate  of  Athens  ? 

L — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Spartan  republic  ?     (2.)  How  did  it  originate  ? 

n. — (1.)  Who  were  chief  in  the  commonwealth?  (2.)  What  authority  had 
they  ?     (3.)  W^hat  was  its  duration  ?     4.)  How  was  it  restricted  ? 

TTT — (1.)  What  constituted  the  national  council?     (2.)   What  is  said  of  its 


The  Lacedemonian  Republic.  151 

people,  and  were  twenty-eight  in  number.     (3.)   All  public  matters 
were  first  discussed  in  this  senate. 

IV. — (1.)  An  assembly  of  the  people  acted  upon  laws  and  regu- 
lations submitted  to  their  discussion.  (2.)  Only  such  matters  came 
before  the  assembly  of  the  people  as  had  been  considered  by  the 
senate.  (3.)  Action  of  the  senate  was  not  legal  unless  it  received 
the  sanction  of  the  citizens  afterward. 

V._(l.)  The  laws  of  Sparta  were  not  allowed  to  be  written,  as 
in  other  Grecian  states.  (2.)  They  were  taught  to  children  by 
their  parents  and  masters.  (3.)  All  citizens  were  required  to  have 
the  laws  fixed  in  their  memory. 

VI. — (1.)  There  was  a  high  court  or  council  of  five  magistrates, 
called  Epkori.  (2.)  The  Ephori  had  jurisdiction  over  morals,  took 
charge  of  the  treasury,  and  had  authority  to  call  kings  and  senators 
to  account  at  any  time. 

VII.— (1.)  The  Ephori,  in  connection  with  the  senate,  held  the 
power  of  life  and  death  over  kings  and  citizens  accused  of  offence 
against  the  state.  (2.)  They  decided  disputes  between  individuals, 
and  could  impeach  senators  and  officers.  (2.)  Two  of  the  Ephori 
accompanied  the  kings  in  military  expeditions.  (4.)  They  were 
elected  yearly  from  citizens  who  had  been  senators. 

VIII.— (1.)  The  Ephori  presided  over  the  education  of  Spartan 
children,  and  called  the  people  to  meet  in  their  assemblies.  (2.)  They 
had  power  to  levy  troops,  and  send  them  to  war,  and  gave  orders  to 
the  kings,  when  the  latter  acted  as  generals. 


'O'^I 


members?     (3.)  What  about  public  matters  ? 

IV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  popular  assembly  ?  (2.)  What  matters  came 
before  it?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  senate's  action  ? 

v.— (1.)  What  about  SparUn  laws?  (2.)  To  whom  were  they  taught? 
(3.)  What  was  required  of  citizens? 

VI.— (1.)  What  high  court  was  there  in  Sparta?  (2.)  What  authority  had 
these,  magistrates  ? 

Vn.— (1.)  What  penal  power  did  the  Ephori  hold?  (2.)  What  did  they 
do?     (3.)  What  did  two  of  them  do?     (4.)   How  were  the  Ephori  appointed? 

Vm.— (1.)  What  other  authority  was  exercised  by  these  magistrates? 
(2.)  What  military  power  had  they  ? 


1 52  History  of  Governments. 

IX. — (1.)  The  twenty-eight  senators  were  chosen  for  life,  by  the 
citizens,  in  popular  assembly,  (2.)  They  were  selected  from  the 
eldest  and  most  respectable  citizens.  (3.)  In  connection  with  the 
Ephori,  they  directed  all  public  measures,  in  peace  or  war.  (4.)  They 
were  judges  of  the  people  in  questions  that  concerned  property  and 
life, 

X. — (1.)  The  assemblies  of  the  people  were  composed  of  all  citi- 
zens over  thirty  years  of  age.  (2.)  No  Spartan  citizen  was  per- 
mitted to  engage  in  mechanical  or  menial  pursuits.  (3.)  All  Spar- 
tan youths  were  educated  to  be  soldiers,  and  remained  at  home  to 
defend  the  state  till  they  became  entitled  to  the  name  of  Spartan 
citizens. 

XI. — (1.)  Land,  in  the  Lacedemonian  territory,  was  divided 
equally  among  the  citizens.  (2.)  There  were  thirty-nine  thousand 
allotments  of  laud  in  this  manner.  (3.)  The  proprietors  of  these 
shares  were  not  allowed  to  sell  them. 

XII. — (L)  The  Lacedemonian  people  were  of  two  classes — na- 
tive born  and  freedmen.  (2.)  Those  born  of  Spartan  parents,  and 
brought  up  under  the  state  regulations,  were  eligible  to  civil  and 
military  offices.  (3.)  The  other  class  of  citizens  consisted  of  persons 
whose  parents  were  not  native,  or  who  were  not  educated  according 
to  law.  (4.)  Members  of  the  latter  class  were  permitted  to  vote,  but 
could  not  h(jld  office.  (5.)  Strangers  and  released  captives  belonged 
to  the  second  class. 

XIII. — (1.)  The  electors  of  the  chief  Lacedemonian  city,  called 

IX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  senate?  (2.)  How  were  senators  selected? 
(3.)  What  were  the  senators'  powers?  (4.)  What  judicial  authority  had 
they? 

X. — (1.)  Who  composed  the  popular  assemblies  ?  (2.)  How  were  Spartan 
citizens  restricted  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  Spartan  youth  ? 

XL — (1.)  How  was  land  divided  in  Lacedemonia?  (2.)  How  many  allot- 
ments of  the  soil  were  there  ?     (3).  What  was  not  allowed  to  landholders? 

XII. — (1.)  How  were  the  Lacedemonian  people  classed?  (2.)  Who  were 
eligible  to  hold  office?  (3.)  Who  constituted  the  second  class?-  (4.)  How 
were  members  of  the  second  class  restricted?  (5.)  What  persons  belonged 
to  the  second  class  ? 

XIII — (1.)  When  and  where  did  the  Lacedemonian  electors  meet  ? 


The  Lacedemonian  Republic.  153 

Sparta,  met  in  their  assemblies  twice  a  year,  or  oftener,  when  con- 
vened by  the  Ephori.  (2.)  Free  citizens  of  other  towns,  in  the  re- 
public, sent  delegates  of  committees  of  their  number,  to  meet  with 
the  assembly  of  Sparta, 

XIV. — (1.)  The  Lacedemonian  senate  was  presided  over  by  the 
two  kings.  (2.)  Each  of  the  kings  possessed  a  vote,  like  any  other 
citizen,  but  no  power  over  the  meeting  except  what  was  required  to 
enforce  order. 

XV". — (1.)  Besides  native  citizens,  and  freedmen  entitled  to  attend 
the  assemblies,  there  were  two  other  classes  of  inhabitants  in  Lace- 
demonian territory.  (2.)  The  first  of  these,  consisting  of  descend- 
ants of  a  former  Grecian  tribe,  were  called  helots.  (3.)  These  helots 
were  deprived  of  all  power  in  the  republic,  and  considered  to  be 
slaves  of  Spartan  citizens. 

XVI. —  (1.)  Helots  cultivated  the  lands  owned  by  Spartan  citi- 
zens, paying  a  fixed  rent  for  them  yearly.  (2.)  They  carried  on 
mechanical  trades,  and  followed  the  Spartan  soldiers  to  war  as  ser- 
vants. (B.)  Sometimes  helots  were  permitted  to  acquire  wealth, 
and  occasionally  they  were  admitted  to  citizenship,  as  a  reward  of 
meritorious  actions.  (4.)  They  were  usually  treated  with  great 
cruelty  by  their  masters. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  lowest  class  of  the  population  was  made  up  of 
slaves,  of  various  nationalities  and  colors.  (2.)  These  persons  per- 
formed rough  labors  and  menial  services,  required  in  public  and 
domestic  ofiSces. 

(2)   How  were  free  citizens  of  other  towns  represented? 

XIV. — (1.)  Who  presided  over  the  senate?  (2.)  What  influence  had  the 
kings  over  this  body  ? 

XV. — (1.)  What  other  classes  made  up  tlie  Lacedemonian  community? 
(2.)  Of  what  did  the  first  of  these  cksses  consist?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  these 
helots  ? 

XVI.— (1  )  What  labors  did  the  helots  perform  ?  (2)  What  other  occupa 
tions  had  they ?  (3.)  What  privileges  did  they  sometimes  have?  (4.)  How 
were  tney  usually  treated  ? 

XVII. — (1.)  What  made  up  the  lowest  class  of  Lacedemonian  population? 
'2.)  What  labors  did  they  perform  ? 


154  History  of  Governments. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  Lacedemonian  republic  became  famous  among 

Grecian  states,  on  account  of  the  bravery  and  hardihood  of  its  citi- 
zens, who  were  all  soldiers.  (2.;  The  state  of  Sparta  was  often 
engaged  in  wars  with  Athens  and  other  Grecian  cities,  (3.)  It 
become  powerful  and  feared,  but  at  length  suffered  the  fate  of  all 
ambitious  states.  (4.)  It  fell  a  prey  to  inward  disorder  and  violence 
from  without. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  Spartan  government  was  founded  on  principles 
of  great  value.  (2.)  Its  laws  were  opposed  to  luxury,  and  pro- 
vided for  the  education  of  every  citizen  from  his  childhood.  (3.) 
But  the  privileges  and  rights  of  citizenship  were  confined  to  a 
limited  class.  (4.)  Members  of  this  class  were  allowed  to  tyrannize 
over  other  classes  of  their  fellow-men. 

XX. — (1.)  The  servile  population  of  Sparta  became  more  nume- 
rous than  the  free  citizens.  (2.)  They  had  no  share  in  the  com- 
monwealth, and  no  interest  in  the  soil.  (3.)  Their  education  was 
not  cared  for,  in  youth,  and  they  were  allowed  no  position  when 
they  grew  up  to  manhood. 

XXI.— (1.)  The  consequences  attending  such  inequality  of 
classes  were  felt  when  the  state  grew  rich  and  powerful.  (2.)  The 
free  citizens  tyrannized  over  other  classes,  and  demagogues  divided 
the  population.  (3.)  At  last  a  foreign  enemy  was  able  to  conquer 
the  republic  without  difiBculty. 

XVm. — (1.)  For  what  did  the  Lacedemonian  republic  become  famous? 
(2)  In  what  was  Sparta  often  engaged?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  it  ?  (4.)  What 
was  its  fate  ? 

XrX.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Spartan  government?  (2.)  What  of  its  laws? 
(3.)  How  were  popular  rights  restricted?  (4.)  What  was  permitted  to  this 
class? 

XX. — (1.)  What  did  the  servile  population  become  ?  (2.)  In  what  had  they 
no  share  or  interest '     (3.)  What  was  their  social  condition  ? 

yvT- — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  consequences  attending  such  inequality ! 
(2.)  Wh»t  results  followed?    (3.^  What  was  the  end  of  these  troubles? 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

OTHER      GRECIAN      STATES. 

I. — (1.)  Besides  the  republics  of  Attica,  or  Athens,  and  Lace- 
demon,  or  Sparta,  many  other  small  Greek  states  grew  up  with 
popular  iustitutions.  (2.)  The  earliest  government  of  each  was 
hereditary  chieftainship.  (3.)  Every  tribe  was  a  clan,  led  in  its 
wanderings  by  a  headman.  (4.)  In  this  respect,  the  early  Grecian 
communities  were  like  all  other  savage  tribes  before  settlement  and 
cultivation  of  land. 

II. — (1.)  A  nationality  of  the  separate  savage  tribes  of  Greece 
was  brought  about  through  their  common  religion.  (2.)  All  of  them 
worshipped  the  same  set  of  gods,  and  attended  one  principal  temple, 
situated  in  a  place  called  Delphi.  (3.)  Members  of  different  tribes 
met  at  this  temple,  and  formed  a  body  of  their  headmen,  to  consult 
about  sacrifices  and  festivals.  (4.)  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Am- 
phictyonic  Council,  afterward  composed  of  delegates  from  each  Gre- 
cian state. 

III. — (1.)  Athens  and  Sparta  grew  to  be  the  leading  states  of 
Greece.  (2.)  Athens  was  chief  among  the  communities  descended 
from  Ionian  tribes.  (3.)  Sparta  was  principal  of  the  communities 
descended  from  Dorian  tribes. 

IV. — (I.)  Arcadia  was  an  independent  district  of  Greece,  con- 
taining several  cities.      (2.)  In  each  city  were  wardens,  or  chief 


I. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  other  Greek  states  ?  (2.)  Wliat  was  the  first  govern- 
ment of  each?  (:5.)  What  was  every  tribe  ?  (4.)  What  did  Grecian  communi- 
ties resemble,  in  this  respect  ? 

II. — (1.)  How  was  Grecian  nationality  brought  about?  (2.)  What  did  they 
all  do?  (:s.)  What  did  n>embers  of  ditferent  tribes  form?  (4.)  Of  wliat  was 
this  tlie  origin  ? 

III. — (1.)  What  two  grew  to  be  leading  states?  (2)  Among  what  commu- 
nities was  Athens  chief?  (3.)  Of  what  other  communities  was  Sparta  the 
principal "/ 

IV. —  (1  )   What  was  the   Grecian  state   of  Arcadia?     (2)    What   were  in 

155 


156  History  of  Governments. 

magistrates  of  the  people,  and  a  senate,  elected  by  the  popular 
assembly.  (3.)  In  time  of  war,  a  leader,  or  king,  was  chosen  by 
all  the  cities  ;  but  they  were  usually  independent  of  each  other. 

V. — (1.)  The  Argive  republic  was  a  Dorian  state,  governed  by 
a  senate,  and  a  body  of  citizens  chosen  from  the  wealthiest  persons 
of  the  community.  (2.)  It  was  thus  based  on  an  aristocratic  con- 
stitution, with  magistrates  chosen  from  a  ruling  class. 

VI. — (1.)  The  AcHAiAN  republics  consisted  of  twelve  cities,  each 
with  seven  or  eight  districts,  or  cantons.  (2.)  Each  of  the  twelve 
was  an  independent  state,  with  a  democratic  constitution.  (3.)  They 
were  combined  by  a  league,  or  compact,  which  made  them  a  con- 
federated nation.  (4.)  The  Achaian  states,  thus  confederated, 
were  able  to  defend  themselves  from  other  nations,  and  live  in  peace 
and  happiness. 

VII. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Corinth  was  governed  by  its  citizens, 
in  general  assembly,  and  a  senate.  (2.)  The  chief  inhabitants  were 
merchants,  forming  a  wealthy  class.  (3.)  From  this  class  the 
magistrates  and  senate  were  usually  selected,  making  it  an  aristo- 
cratic state. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  aristocratic  republic  of  Elis  consisted  of  several 
districts,  each  choosing  a  magistrate  from  the  tribe  occupying  it. 
(2.)  A  senate,  of  ninety  members,  met  at  the  capital,  and  held  office 
during  life. 

IX. — (1.)  The  B(E0TiAN  republic  embraced  a  number  of  small 
states,  each  possessing  a  chief  city  and  several  villages.  (2.)  They 
were  combined  as  a  nation  by  a  league,  with  the  state  of  Thebes  at 

each  city?     (3.)  What  was  done  in  time  of  war? 

V. — (1.)   What  was  the  Argive  republic?     (2.)  What  was  its  basis? 

VI. — (1.)  What  were  the  Achaian  republics  ?  (2.)  What  was  each  distnct? 
(3.)  How  were  the  twelve  combined  ?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  this  league  of 
republics  ? 

Vn.— (1.)  What  about  the  republic  of  Corinth?  (2.)  Who  composed  its 
chief  inhabitants?     (S.)  How  were  magistrates  and  senates  appointed? 

Vm.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  republic  of  Elis?  (2.)  What  about  Hs 
senate  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What  did  the  Boeotian  republic  embrace  ?  (2.)  What  united 
them  ? 


Other  Grecian  States.  157 

its  head.  (3.)  Boeotia  was  divided  into  four  districts,  each  having 
an  assembly  of  citizens.  (4.)  These  assemblies  chose  eleven  officers, 
called  Boeotarchs,  who  governed  the  confederacy  as  civil  magistrates 
and  military  commanders.  (5.)  Each  Boeotian  city  was  ruled  by  a 
small  body  of  men,  elected  by  law  from  a  few  leading  families. 
(6.)   It  thus  constituted  an  oligarchic  state. 

X. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Megaris  was  governed  by  magistrates 
chosen  for  short  terms  by  the  people.  (2.)  All  power  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  citizens  at  large  who  were  not  slaves  so  that  the  con- 
stitution was  democratic. 

XI. — (1.)  The  island  republic  of  Crete  was  made  up  of  a  num- 
ber of  cities,  sometimes  united  and  sometimes  at  war  with  each 
other.  (2.)  Every  city  had  its  own  constitution,  with  a  senate 
elected  from  the  citizens.  (3.)  The  magistrates  of  each  city  were 
ten  in  number,  always  taken  from  certain  privileged  families.  (4.) 
These  officers,  called  cosmi,  were  supreme,  >^ ;.»  governed  as  an  oli- 
garchic body. 

XII. — (1.)  AH  Grecian  states  were  in  the  practice  of  sending 
out  companies  of  their  citizens,  to  settle  on  islands  and  in  districts 
of  other  countries.  (2.)  In  this  way,  many  Grecian  colonies  grew 
up,  and  became  flourishing  states.  (3.)  These  colonies  were  usually 
governed  as  republics,  with  democratic,  aristocratic,  or  oligarchic 
constitutions. 

XIII. — (1.)  Syracuse  was  the  most  powerful  of  all  Grecian  colo 
nies.  (2.)  It  was  planted  in  the  island  of  Sicily,  and  grew  up  under 
an  aristocratic  form  of  goverument.     (3.)  The  chief  power  was,  at 


(3.)  How  was  Boeotia  divided?  (4.)  What  did  the  Boeotian  assemblies 
choose  ?     (5.)  How  was  each  city  ruled?     (6.)  What  did  it  thus  constitute  ? 

X.— (1.)  How  was  the  republic  of  Megaris  governed  ?  (2  )  In  whose  hands 
was  the  power? 

XI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Crete?  (2.)  Wliat  did  every  city  have  ?  (3.) 
What  is  .said  of  magistrates?  (4.)  What  governmeirt  did  these  officers 
constitute? 

Xn (1.)  What  was  tlie  practice  of  Grecian  states?     (2.)  What  resulted  ? 

(8.)  How  were  such  colonies  governed  ? 

Xm. — (1.)  What  was  the  most  powerful  of  Grecian  colonies?  (2.)  What 
is  said  of  it  ?     (3.)  It  what  class  was  chief  power  lodged  ? 


1^8  History  of  Governments. 

first,  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the  richest  class.  (4.)  A  democratic 
party  afterward  arose,  and,  by  the  help  of  the  slaves,  who  rose 
against  their  masters,  drove  the  aristocratic  leaders  away.  (5.) 
The  aristocrats  called  foreigners  to  their  assistance,  and  regained 
power  by  establishing  a  foreigner  as  king.  (6.)  Syracuse  continued 
a  monarchy  till  another  revolution  of  the  people  restored  republican- 
ism, under  the  democratic  form. 

XIV. — (1.)  Under  a  democratic  constitution,  magistrates  and 
other  officers  were  elected  by  lot.  (2.)  Parties  and  factions  then 
grew  up,  and  a  general  named  Dionysius  made  himself  king,  and 
was  succeeded  by  a  line  of  absolute  monarchs.  (3.)  The  republic 
was  restored  by  a  patriot  named  Timoleon,  but  after  his  death  the 
supreme  power  fell  into  the  hands  of  different  tyrants.  (4.)  The 
political  history  of  Syracuse  teaches  the  evils  of  civil  war  and  social 
divisions  among  the  people  of  a  state. 

XV. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Massilia  arose  from  a  Grecian  colony 
planted  on  the  coast  of  ancient  Gallia.  (2.)  Its  government  was 
aristocratic,  of  a  liberal  form.  (3.)  The  chief  power  was  exercised 
by  a  body  of  six  hundred  citizens,  called  timuchi.  (4.)  They  were 
chosen  for  life,  and  were  obliged  to  be  married  men  with  families. 
(5.)  None  but  those  whose  grandfathers  and  fathers  were  citizens, 
as  well  as  themselves,  could  belong  to  this  body.  (6.)  At  the 
head  of  the  council  of  six  hundred  were  fifteen  principal  men.  (*I.) 
Three  of  these  were  the  chief  magistrates  of  the  state.  (8.)  The 
Massilian  republic  was  prosperous,  and  became  the  seat  of  learning 
and  philosophy. 


^4.)  What  afterward  occurred?  (5.)  What  did  the  aristocrats  do?  (6.)  What 
was  the  consequence? 

XIV. —  (1.)  How  were  magistrates  elected  by  th.T  Syracusan  democracy? 
(2.)  What  grew  up,  and  what  followed?  (3.)  What  afterward  took  place? 
(4  )  W^hat  does  the  political  history  of  Syracuse  teach? 

XV. —  (1.)  From  what  did  the  republic  of  Massilia  arise  ?  (2.)  What  was  its 
form  of  government?  (3.)  By  whom  was  chief  power  exercised?  (4.)  What 
is  said  of  the  tlmiichi?  (5.)  Who  only  could  belong  to  this  body  ?  (6.)  Who 
were  at  the  head  of  the  council?  (7.)  What  did  three  of  these  constitute? 
(8.)  What  was  the  condition  of  the  Massilian  republic? 


Other  Grecian  States.  159 

XVI.— (1.)  The  republic  of  Tarentum  grew  from  a  settlement 
of  Dorian  Greeks  in  Italy.  (2.)  It  became  rich  and  prosperous 
through  trafiSc,  but  lost  its  power  by  the  increase  of  luxury  among 
its  citizens.  (3.)  The  government  was,  at  first,  a  liberal  aristocracy, 
magistrates  being  selected  half  by  lot  and  half  by  a  majority  of 
votes  in  public  meeting.  (4.)  The  senate  had  the  power  of  making 
war.  (5.)  When  its  free  institutions  became  corrupted,  Tarentum 
sunk  into  a  province  of  Rome. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Croton  rose  from  a  colony  of 
Aciiaian  Greeks.  (2.)  Its  institutions  were  democratic,  re-organ- 
ized by  the  philosopher  Pythagoras.  (3.)  Pythagoras  formed  a 
secret  association  of  citizens  to  improve  the  government,  by  educat- 
ing young  native  citizens,  of  capacity,  to  fill  all  offices  of  state. 
(4.)  Members  of  this  secret  society  were  called  Pythagoreans,  and 
they  spread  throughout  many  cities  of  Italy. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Sybaris  was  a  Greek  settlement, 
founded,  as  Croton  was,  by  Achaians,  incorporated  with  the  native 
tribes.  (2.)  It  increased  to  twenty-five  cities,  and  became  noted 
for  wealth  and  luxury.  (3.)  All  foreigners  were  admitted  to  citi- 
zenship, so  that  the  republic  grew  excessively  populous. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  Sybarites  remained  democratic  till  a  foreigner 
named  Telys  was  elected  chief  magistrate.  (2.)  Telys  usurped  su- 
preme power,  and  expelled  five  hundred  of  tlie  principal  native  citi- 
zens, (3.)  The  banished  citizens  fled  to  the  republic  of  Croton, 
which  espoused  their  cause.  (4.)  A  war  followed,  and  the  Sybarite 
state  was  destroyed  by  tlie  Grotonians. 

XVI. — (1.)  From  what  did  the  republic  of  Tarentum  grow?  (2.)  What  is 
said  of  the  state?  (3.)  What  was  its  govenimeut?  (4.)  What  power  had  the 
Tarentine  senate?     (5.)  What  befell  Tarentum  ? 

XVn. — (1.)  From  what  did  the  republic  of  Croton  rise?  (2.)  What  were 
its  institutions?  (3.)  What  did  Pythagoras  form?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  this 
Bocioty  ? 

XVni.— (1.)  What  was  the  republic  of  Sybaris  ?  (2.)  How  did  this  colony 
flourish?     (3.)  Who  were  its  citizens? 

XIX.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Sybarite  government?  (2.)  What  did  this 
foreigner  do?  (3.)  What  became  of  the  bari^hed  citizens?  (4.)  What  fol- 
lowed this  ? 


i6o  History  of  Governments. 

XX. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Thurii  was  founded  by  Athenian 
colonists,  near  the  site  of  Sybaris.  (2.)  Many  Sybarite  families 
joined  the  Thurians,  and,  by  means  of  their  wealth,  bought  all  the 
best  lands,  and  created  an  oligarchy.  (3.)  The  poorer  classes  ei.- 
pelled  them,  and  adopted  a  democratic  form  of  government. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  Grecian  republic  of  Locri,  in  Italy,  was  founded 
by  bands  of  colonists  from  all  parts  of  Greece.  (2.)  Tliese  people 
adopted  an  aristocratic  form  of  government,  placing  power  in  the 
hands  of  a  hundred  select  families.  (3.)  The  citizens  met  in  public 
assembly,  and  elected  a  magistrate  called  a  cosmopolis,  from  one  of 
the  select  families.  (4.)  They  also  chose  from  their  own  numbers  a 
general  senate,  of  a  thousand  members,  to  make  the  laws. 

XXII. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Rhegium  arose  from  a  colony  of 
peninsular  Greeks.  (2.)  The  government  was  aristocratic,  all  power 
being  placed  in  the  hands  of  a  thousand  men  selected  only  from 
Messenian  families.  (3.)  These  families  grew  to  be  an  oligarchy, 
and  afterward  a  member  of  one  of  them  found  himself  able  to 
usurp  supreme  power.  (4.)  The  state  then  fell  a  prey  to  parties, 
and  sunk  at  last  into  a  Roman  province. 

XXIII. — (1.)  Most  of  the  Grecian  colonies  in  Europe  grew  up 
to  be  free  states,  smaller  or  larger.  (2.)  They  were  principally 
planted  on  that  portion  of  Gallia  now  known  as  Lower  Italy. 
(3.)  The  principles  of  republicanism  were  in  this  manner  spread 
from  Greece  to  different  countries.  (4.)  The  free  Grecian  cities  of 
Italy  formed  the  pattern  for  free  Italian  states  in  after  ages. 


XX.— (1.)  Who  founded  the  republic  of  Thurii  ?  (2.)  What  families  joined 
the  Thurians?     (3.)  What  did  the  poorer  classes  do? 

XXI. — (1.)  How  did  the  republic  of  Locri  originate?  (2.)  What  form  of 
government  was  adopted  ?  (3.)  What  chief  magistrate  was  elected  ?  (4.)  What 
body  was  chosen  ? 

XXn.— (1.)  From  what  did  the  republic  of  Rhegium  rise  ?  (2.)  What  form 
of  government  was  adopted?  (.3.)  To  what  did  these  families  grow?  (4.)  What 
was  the  consequence  ? 

XXm.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Grecian  colonies  in  Europe?  (2.)  Where  were 
they  principally  planted?  (3.)  What  resulted  from  Grecian  colonization? 
(4.    What  did  the  free  Grecian  cities  of  Italy  form  ? 


The  Roman  Commonwealth-  161 

XXIV.— (1.)  Whenever  moderate  democratic  itistitntions  of  the 
Grecians  were  allowed  fair  trial,  they  were  found  to  insure  pros- 
perity in  a  state-  (2.)  When  corrupted  by  wealth  and  ambition,  in 
particular  classes  or  individuals,  they  became  feeble,  and  dangerous 
to  the  people.  (3.)  The  evils  of  Grecian  republics  consisted  in  the 
luxury  of  the  rich,  the  dependent  condition  of  poorer  citizens,  and 
the  practice  of  holding  great  numbers  of  slaves. 

XXV.— (1.)  The  rich  obtained  possession  of  all  the  land. 
(2.)  They  were  often  able  to  buy  the  votes  of  the  poor,  and  could 
maintain  possession  of  offices  and  make  the  laws.  (3.)  Slaves 
were  depended  upon  to  perform  all  labors  for  the  rich,  and  the  poor 
could  not  command  employment.  (4.)  Poor  citizens,  who  possessed 
votes,  were  used  as  instruments  by  ambitious  men,  and  often  sup- 
ported by  them. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE     ROMAN     COMMONWEALTH. 

I. M.)  The  state  of  Rome  grew  from  a  combination  of  settiers 

belonging  to  several  agricultural  tribes.  (2.)  They  formed  a  com- 
munity on  the  shores  of  the  Tiber,  a  river  of  Italy,  and  there  built 
a  town. 

II. — (1.)  The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Rome  adopted  a  form  of 
government  resembling  that  of  Grecian  republics.     (2.)  They  es- 


XXIV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  moderate  democratic  institutions?  (2.)  What 
took  place  when  such  institutions  became  corrupted  ?  (3.)  In  what  did  the 
evils  of  Grecian  republics  consist? 

XXV.— (1.)  What  principal  cause  operated  against  democracy  ?  (2.)  What 
were  the  wealthy  able  to  do?  (3.)  What  persons  were  depended  upon  as 
laborers?     (4  )  What  is  said  of  poor  citizens  ? 

I. — (1,)  From  what  did  Rome  grow  ?    (2.)  What  did  the  tribes  do? 

If- — (1.)  What  form  of  government  was  adopted?  (2.)  What  did  the 
people  do  ? 


l62  Histor}'^  of  Governments. 

tablished  a  body  called  the  senate,  and  elected  a  chief,  or  king,  by 
Totes  of  the  people  in  general  assembly. 

III. — (1.)  The  Roman  commonwealth  was  organized  with  much 
system,  even  in  its  infant  years.  (2.)  Many  of  its  institutions  con- 
tinued to  grow  stronger  as  the  state  advanced  in  power  and  popu- 
lation. 

IV. —  (1.)  It  was  an  object  with  the  early  settlers  of  Rome  to 
increase  their  numbers.  (2.)  They  agreed  that  all  free-born  strangers 
who  joined  the  colony,  should  enjoy  the  privileges  of  citizens. 

V. — (1.)  At  that  time  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Romans 
amounted  to  about  fifty  square  miles.  (2.)  The  citizens  divided 
this  quantity  of  land,  in  order  to  sustain  individuals  and  meet  the 
expenses  of  a  body-politic. 

VI. — (1.)  They  first  separated  the  districts  suitable  for  cultiva- 
tion, into  three  unequal  proportions.  (2.)  The  smallest  portion  was 
reserved  for  religious  purposes.  (3.)  Temples  of  the  gods,  and 
fields  to  secure  rents  and  products  for  support  of  a  priesthood,  were 
included  in  this  reservation. 

VII. — (1.)  The  land  comprised  in  the  second  part  was  called  the 
king's  land,  and  devoted  to  the  raising  of  funds  to  meet  the  ex- 
pense of  government.  (2.)  The  third  division  of  soil  was  considered 
to  belong  to  the  people. 

VIII. —  (1.)  The  Roman  people  were  at  first  separated  into  three 
tribes.  (2.)  Each  of  these  three  tribes  represented  one  of  the  nations 
that  inhabited  the  country  when  Rome  was  founded.      (3.)  The 

m. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Roman  commonwealth  ?  (2.)  What  of  its  in- 
stitutions ? 

IV.— (1.)  What  was  an  object,  with  early  settlers?  (2.)  What  did  they 
agree  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  territory  did  the  Roman  settlers  occupy?  (2.)  What  did  the 
citizens  do  with  this  territory  ? 

VI.— (1.)  What  divisions  did  they  first  make?  (2.)  For  what  was  the 
emalle.st  portion  reserved?     (3.)  What  were  included  in  the  reservation? 

VII. — (1.)  What  was  the  second  portion  of  land?  (-2.)  To  whom  was  the 
third  division  considered  to  belong  ? 

VIII. — (1.)  How  were  the  Romans  at  first  separated?  (2.")  What  did  each 
tribe  represent  ?     (3.)  What  were  the  names  of  the  three  ? 


The  Roman  Commonwealth.  163 

first  were  Sabiiies,  the  second  Albanes,  and  the  third  was  composed 
of  all  strangers,  of  various  nations. 

IX. — (1.)  In  later  times,  the  tribes  of  Rome  were  increased  to 
four,  and  each  took  its  name  from  that  part  of  the  city  where  its 
members  lived.  (2.)  As  Rome  grew  more  populous,  new  sulxlivi- 
sions  were  made,  till  the  number  of  tribes  at  last  reached  to  thirtj- 
five. 

X. — (1.)  Every  tribe  was  politically  divided  into  ten  parishes, 
each  called  a  curia.  (2.)  The  Roman  people  were  afterward  sepa- 
rated into  classes  of  society,  to  distinguish  the  higher  and  lower 
citizens. 

XI. — (1.)  The  first  class  was  composed  of  the  elder  and  wealthier 
citizens  of  Rome,  who  were  called  patricians.  (2.)  The  word  patri- 
cian is  derived  from  pater  or  patricius,  a  father.  (3.)  Citizens  who 
had  the  most  numerous  families,  and  means  to  support  them  all, 
were  distinguished  in  early  days  of  the  republic  as  most  honorable. 

XII. — (1.)  The  first  Roman  council  or  senate  was  selected  from 
the  fathers  of  families.  (2.)  The  word  senator  has  the  same  mean- 
ing as  elder.  (3.)  The  first  senators,  and  other  officers  of  the  com- 
monwealth, were  allowed  to  call  their  families  patrician  families. 
(4.)  The  senate  consisted,  at  first,  of  one  hundred,  next  of  two 
hundred,  and  afterward  of  three  hundred. 

XIII. — (1.)  Families  whose  fathers  served  in  early  days  as  sena- 
tors, were  afterward  called  patridi,  and  became  the  aristocratic  or 
higher  class  of  Roman  citizens?  (2.)  Tlie  great  body  of  citizens 
Femained  plebeii,  or  plebeians,  signifying  common  people.  / 

IX. — (1.)  What  took  place  in  later  times  ?  (2.)  Wiiat  was  done  as  Rome 
grew  populous? 

X, — (1.)  How  was  each  tribe  politically  divided?  {-!.)  How  were  the  people 
afterward  separated? 

XI, — {!.)  Of  wliat  was  the  first  class  composed?  (2.)  From  what  is  the 
word  patrician  derived?     (3.)    Who  were  first  distinguished  as  honorable? 

XII. —(1.)  From  what  portion  of  the  community  was  the  first  council  se- 
lected? (2.)  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  senator?  (3.)  What  were  the 
first  senators  allowed  to  do?     (4.)  What  number  composed  the  senate? 

Xm.— (1.)  How  did  patrician  families  originate  ?  ('2.)  What  did  other  citi- 
zens remain? 


it)4  History  of  Governments. 

XIV. — (1.)  Patricians,  ia  early  times,  were  called  patrous, 
because  they  patronized  or  protected  the  poorer  sort  of  people. 
(2.)  The  latter,  iu  return  for  protection,  were  glad  to  pay  respect 
to  the  former,  and  follow  them  as  clansmen.  (3.)  A  patron  was 
generally  the  head  of  a  large  number  of  these  followers,  who  were 
called  his  clients.  (4.)  They  were  usually  remote  relations,  stran- 
gers, persons  engaged  in  industrial  trades,  and  sellers  of  merchandise. 

XV. — (1.)  After  a  patrician  class  was  established,  magistrates 
and  officers  of  the  army  were  mostly  chosen  from  its  members, 
(2.)  Certain  warriors  were  selected  to  defend  the  city,  and  each 
of  these  was  furnished  with  a  horse  by  the  commonwealth.  (3.) 
The  horsemen  were  called  the  equestrian  ordi  r,  or  class  of  gentle- 
men. (4.)  They  were  allowed  to  wear  a  gold  ring,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  common  people,  who  were  forbidden  to  wear  such  an 
ornament. 

XVI. — (1.)  Equestrians  were  considered  next  in  rank  to  the 
senators.  (2.)  Senators  wore  a  robe  marked  with  large  spots  of 
purple  silk,  and  called  the  laticiavium.  (3.)  Equestrians  wore  a  robe, 
with  smaller  spots  of  purple,  called  an  augustidaviuvt.  (4.)  A  sena- 
tor was  generally  required  to  be  worth  about  thirty  thousand  dol- 
lars, in  land  and  slaves.  (5.)  The  property  of  an  equestrian,  or 
gentleman,  was  expected  to  be  in  value  about  half  that  sum. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  divisions  of  aristocracy,  iu  Rome,  proceeded 
from  complimentary  distinctions  originally  allowed  by  the  people  to 
certain  families.     (2.)  The  founders  of  such    families   served    the 

XIV. — (1.)  What  other  name  had  patricians?  (2.)  What  ia  said  of  poorer 
citizens?  (3.)  What  was  the  position  of  a  patron?  (4.)  What  were  these 
clients  ? 

XV. — (1.)  What  took  place  after  a  patrician  class  was  established?  {2) 
What  body  was  created?  (3.)  What  were  these  horsemen  called  ?  (4.)  What 
Tere  they  allowed  ? 

XVI. — (1.)  What  was  the  rank  of  equestrians?  (2.)  What  did  senators 
wear?  (3.)  What  did  equestrians  wear?  (4.)  What  was  a  senator  required  to 
be  worth  in  property  ?  (5.)  What  was  expected  to  be  the  wealth  of  an 
equestrian  ? 

XVII. — (,1.)  From  what  did  the  two  aristocratic  divisions  proceed? 
(2.)  What  is  said  regarding  the  founders  of  such  aristocralic  families? 


The  Romar  Commonwealth.  165 

state  in  various  capacities,  aud  were  honored,  as  good  citizens  and 
protectors  of  the  community.  (3.)  Their  descendants  insisted  on 
maintaining  the  distinction,  and  set  themselves  up  as  claimants  to 
the  principal  ofiBces. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  history  of  the  Roman  commonwealth  pre- 
sents a  constant  struggle  between  the  democracy,  or  plebeians,  and 
the  aristocracy,  or  patrician  orders.  (2.)  All  who  boasted  descent 
from  the  first  senators,  and  first  horse-soldiers,  of  the  republic,  con- 
sidered themselves  patricians. 

XIX. — (1.)  Plebeians  of  Rome  were  generally  comprised  under 
the  name  populus,  or  the  people.  (2.)  They  carried  on  all  occupa- 
tions and  ways  of  livelihood,  that  are  usual  to  poorer  citizens. 
(3.)  The  most  respectable  of  these  were  traders,  manufacturers,  ar- 
tisans, farmers,  and  herdsmen.  (4.)  The  lower  sort  were  idlers, 
vagrants,  aud  persons  following  disreputable  courses  to  gain  a  sub- 
sistence. 

XX. — (1.)  The  privileges,  or  freedom,  of  a  Roman  citizen,  could 
be  obtained  in  three  ways.  (2.)  The  first  way  was  by  hirthight, 
from  one  or  both  of  the  person's  parents,  and  himself  also,  having 
been  free-born  in  Rome.  (3.)  This  class  of  citizens  became  known 
as  original  citizens. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  second  way  of  obtaining  citizenship,  was  by 
receiving  it  as  a  gift,  in  consideration  of  services  rendered,  or  as  a 
mark  of  honor  conferred.  (2.)  A  foreigner  could  in  this  manner 
be  adopted  to  citizenship.    (3.)  In  latter  days  of  the  commonwealth, 

(3.)  On  what  did  their  descendants  insist? 

XVlU. — (1.)  What  does  Roman  history  present?  (2.)  Who  claimed  to  be 
patricians  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  Under  what  name  were  plebeians  comprised?  (2.)  What  were 
their  occupations?  (3.)  How  were  the  most  respectable  employed  ?  (4.)  What 
persons  comprised  the  lower  sort? 

XX. — (1.)  IIow  could  privileges  or  freedom  be  obtained  ?  (2.)  What  was 
the  first?     (3.)  What  were  such  citizens  called? 

XXI. — (1.)  What  was  the  second  way  of  obtaining  citizen.-^liip?  (2  )  Who 
could  in  this  manner  become  a  ciii/en?  {'A.)  What  took  place  in  latter 
daye  ? 


i66  History  of  Governments. 

whole  nations  were  sometimes  admitted  to  citizenship  by  a  decree 
of  the  senate. 

XXII.^ — (1.)  The  third  method  of  making  a  freeman,  was  by 
manumission,  as  when  a  master  resigned  control  over  a  slave,  and 
gave  him  a  cap,  in  token  of  liberty.  (2.)  A  servant  obtained  his 
freedom  either  by  serving  out  his  term  of  indenture,  or  paying 
money  to  his  master,  or  else  by  gift  of  his  owner.  (3.)  A  manu- 
mitted servant  was  called  a  freedman. 

XXIII. — (1.)  The  lowest  descriptions  of  Roman  population  were 
the  bondmen  and  slaves.  (2.)  The  former  comprised  individuals 
bound  by  indentures  or  sentence  of  the  courts.  (3.)  The  latter  were 
persons  in  slavery,  and  subject  to  the  will  of  their  owners.  (4.)  The 
first  embraced  apprentices,  gladiators,  and  debtors  serving  for  the 
benefit  of  creditors.  (5.)  The  latter  comprised  captives  taken  in 
war,  or  persons  bought  in  the  market-place,  as  property. 

XXIV. — (1.)  The  class  of  slaves  and  their  descendants  became 
very  numerous  in  Rome.  (2.)  Slaves  had  no  rights,  and  could  not 
be  witnesses,  and  their  masters  had  unlimited  power  over  their 
persons. 

XXV. — (1.)  When  the  Roman  people  were  separated  into  three 
tribes,  the  soil  settled  upon  by  titizens  was  divided  accordingly. 
(2.)  Each  tribe  had  ten  parishes,  and  the  land  was  allotted  in 
thirty  portions,  for  thirty  parishes.  (3.)  The  individuals  of  each 
parish  then  agreed  regarding  the  distribution  of  the  land  among 
themselves. 

XXVI. — (1.)  The  chief  of  the  state  was  commander  of  all  the 

XXn.-  (1.)  AVhak  was  the  third  way  of  making  a  freeman?  (2.)  In  what 
manner  did  a  servant  obtain  his  freedom  ?  (3.)  What  was  a  manumitted  ser- 
vant called  ? 

XXni. —  (1  )  What  persons  composed  the  lowest  descriptions  of  population  ? 
(2.)  What  were  the  former  ?  (3.)  What  were  the  latter  ?  (4.)  What  did  the 
first  comprise?     (5.)  What  did  the  latter  comprise? 

XXrV. — (1.)  What  class  became  numerous?     (2.)   W'hat  is  said  of  sla>es? 

XXV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  division  of  soil  ?  (2.)  In  what  proportion 
was  the  land  allotted?      (3.)  What  did  the  individuals  do? 

XXVI. — (1.)  What  is  said  coucerning  the  chief  of  the  Roman  state? 


The  Roman  Commonwealth.  16/ 

militia,  or  citizeas  capable  of  bearing  arms.     (2.)  The  chief  could 
not  make  war  without  consultation  with  thef  elders  of  the  people. 

XXVII. — (1.)  The  chief  was  head  of  the  priesthood,  and 
directed  all  services  and  sacrifices  in  Roman  temples.  (2.)  Other 
priests  were  appointed,  to  attend  the  altars  of  different  gods  wor- 
shipped by  the  people. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  Priests  and  judges  of  the  Romans,  at  first,  con- 
sisted of  old  and  respectable  members  of  each  tribe.  (2.)  They 
were  called  fathers  of  the  people,  and  were  held  in  respect  by  all 
members  of  the  early  community. 

XXIX. — (1.)  The  people  who  founded  Rome  embraced  per- 
sons employed  in  cultivating  land,  others  v/ho  raised  flocks,  and 
others  engaged  in  handicraft.  (2.)  Higher  and  lower  classes  grew 
up,  by  degrees,  out  of  this  common  society. 

XXX. — (1.)  Roman  citizens  met  in  general  assembly,  to  cast 
their  votes  for  senators  and  other  ofiBcers,  and  to  approve  or  reject 
laws.  (2.)  In  the  first  years  of  the  state,  this  assembly  was  sum- 
moned to  meet  by  the  king  and  elders.  (3.)  Afterward  the  people 
fixed  certain  periods  of  holding  sessions. 

XXXI.— (1.)  The  office  of  king  was  abolished  at  an  early  date, 
and  two  chief  magistrates,  called  consuls,  were  chosen  instead. 
(2.)  The  senate  possessed  the  power  of  framing  laws,  and  grew  in 
authority  as  the  commonwealth  increased  in  importance. 

XXXII. — (1.)  The  custom  of  distinguishing  families  of  senators 
and  knights  as  honorable,  was  the  only  foundation  to  the  claim  of 

(2.)  How  was  the  chief  restricted  ? 

XXVn. — (1.)  Wliat  peculiar  position  had  the  chief?  (2.)  For  what  were 
othiT  priests  appointed  ? 

XXVin. — (1.)  Who  comprised  tlie  first  judges  and  priests  ?  (2.)  What  were 
they  called  ? 

XXIX.— {!.)  What  class  of  persons  founded  Rome?  (2.)  What  is  remarked 
concerning  other  classes '? 

XXX. — (1.)  For  what  did  Roman  citizens  assemble?  (2.)  How  was  the 
assembly  summoned  at  first?     (3.)  What  was  afterward  done  ? 

XXXI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  kingly  office?  (2.)  What  of  the  Roman 
senate  ? 

XXXII. — (:.)  What  was  the  only  real  claim  of  patricians   to  superiority? 


i68  History  of  Governments. 

those  orders  to  superiority.  (2.)  By  admitting  this  daim,  the 
people  suffered  them  to  encroach  upou  democratic  power  aud  obtaia 
most  of  the  offices. 

XXXIII. — (1.)  Patricians  and  knights  grew  rich,  tiirough 
large  grants  of  lauds,  taken  from  ueighboring  nations  subdued  by 
the  Romans.  (2.)  The  plebeians  possessed  very  little  laud,  though 
their  class  was  the  most  numerous,  (3.)  The  patricians  divided 
nearly  all  the  soil,  aud  bought  slaves  to  cultivate  it  for  their  own 
profit  exclusively. 

XXXIV.^(1.)  The  plebeians  endeavored  to  check  such  increas- 
ing power  of  the  patricians,  by  making  a  law  in  relation  to  holding- 
lands.  (2.)  This  law  provided  that  no  person  should  own  more 
tliau  five  hundred  acres  of  land,  nor  any  child  more  than  half  that 
quantity. 

XXXV. — (1.)  The  senate,  being  composed  principally  of  large 
landowners,  took  care  that  this  law  should  not  be  enforced  strictly. 
(2.)  It  fell  into  disuse,  and  the  nobles  became  more  oppressive 
toward  the  people  thau  before. 

SXXVI. — (1.)  The  people  elected  officers,  called  tribunes,  to 
seive  for  one  year,  as  their  representatives  in  the  government. 
(2.)  These  officers  were  deputed  to  check  the  power  of  the  nobles 
and  protect  popular  interests. 

XXXVII. — (1.)  A  struggle  commenced  between  the  plebeian 
people,  wiiu  were  poor  and  landless,  aud  the  privileged  classes,  who 
ow'.ied  all  the  wealth,  in  money,  slaves,  and  productive  estates. 
(2.)  This  struggle  continued  during  all  the  time  that  the  republic 
endured. 

(2.)  What  did  the  people  suffer  them  to  do  ? 

XXXIII. — (1.)  How  did  the  higher  orders  become  rich  ?  (2.)  What  is  said 
of  the  plebeians?     (3.)  Wliat  did  the  patricians  do  with  the  soil? 

XXXIV.— (1.)  What  did  the  plebeians  endeavor  to  do  ?  (2.)  What  did  ihis 
law  provide? 

XXXV. — (1.)  What  did  the  senate  do  regarding  this  law?  (2.)  What  was 
the  consequence  ? 

XXXVI.  — (1.)  What  officers  did  the  people  elect?  (2)  What  were  the 
tribunes  deputed  to  do  ? 

XXXVII. — (1.)  What  commenced  in  the  commonwealth  ?  (2.)  How  long  did 
this  strug-grle  last? 


The  Roman  Commonwealth.  i6g 

XXXVin. — (1.)  At  an  early  day  of  the  commonwealth,  all 

customs  and  usages  of  the  people  were  collected  into  a  system  of 
regulations,  called  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  (2.)  The  Laws 
of  the  Twelve  Tables  were  compiled  by  three  magistrates  appointed 
for  the  purpose.  (3.)  They  were  ratified  by  the  people  in  public 
assembly.  (4.)  The  condition  of  the  popular  classes  was  not  much 
bettered  by  their  operation. 

XXXIX. — (1.)  One  of  the  laws  prohibited  marriage  relations 
between  patrician  and  plebeian  families.  (2.)  Another  decreed  that 
none  but  patricians  should  be  chosen  consuls.  (3.)  These  two  laws 
were  opposed  by  the  plebeians  for  nearly  a  liundred  years  before 
they  could  secure  their  repeal. 

XXj. — (1.)  The  reason  that  patricians  had  power  to  prevent  the 
more  numerous  class  of  plebeians  from  changing  oppressive  laws, 
was  a  simple  one.  (2.)  It  was  because  the  privileged  orders  were 
united  as  a  body,  and  possessed  all  the  wealth.  (3.)  They  grew 
able  to  influence  leaders  of  tlie  people,  or  to  buy  a  sufficient  number 
of  popular  votes  to  carry  out  their  own  views,  without  regarding 
the  interests  of  plebeians.  (4.)  The  result  was,  that  Roman  sena- 
tors became  the  instruments  or  supporters  of  an  exclusive  and 
privileged  aristocracy. 

XXjI. — (1.)  While  two  parties  of  patricians  and  plebeians  were 
struggling  in  the  commonwealth,  the  Roman  republic  engaged  in 
wars  against  neighboring  states.  (2.)  Those  states  were  subdued, 
one  by  one,  until  Rome  stood  first  of  all  the  Italian  comnmnities^ 
(3.)  Many  captives,  taken  in  these  wars,  were  allowed  to  become 
citizens  of  the  republic, 

XXXVni. — (1.)  What  was  done  at  an  early  day?  (2.)  How  were  these 
laws  prepared  ?  (3.)  How  were  they  ratified  ?  (4.)  What  effect  did  these  laws 
have  on  the  coininonwealn*-'? 

XXXIX.— (1.)  What  did  one  of  the  laws  prohibit?  (2.)  What  did  another 
decree?     (3.)  What  was  the  result  of  these  two  laws? 

XL. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  power  of  patricians?  (2.)  What 
was  this  reason?  (3.)  What  were  they  able  to  do?  (4.)  What  was  the 
result  ? 

XLI. — (1.)  What  foreign  matters  occupied  the  Roman  republic?  (2.)  What 
followed  these  wars?     (3.)  What  was  allowed  to  many  captives? 

ft 


lyo  History  of  Governments. 

XXjII. — (1.)  The  plebeians  grew  powerful  enough  to  pass  a 
law  that  one  of  the  two  chief  magistrates,  called  consuls,  should  be 
elected  from  their  class.  (2.)  They  succeeded  in  electing  other 
magistrates,  at  different  periods,  whenever  they  united  as  a  body 
of  citizens,  (3.)  They  increased  the  senate  to  one  thousand,  instead 
of  one  hundred  members,  and  elected  plebeians,  as  well  as  knights 
and  patricians,  to  that  body. 

XIjIII. — (1.)  Roman  magistrates  consisted  of  all  officers  who 
exercised  civil,  religious,  or  military  authority.  (2.)  The  powers 
of  magistrates  were  not  strictly  specified  or  limited  by  law.  (3.) 
A  senator  could  be  deputed  to  command  a  military  force,  and 
judges,  or  financial  officers,  might  belong  to  the  priesthood.  (4.) 
Whenever  democracy  triumphed  in  the  state,  plebeians  were  chosen 
to  all  offices,  and  sometimes  made  priests. 

XLIV. — (1.)  There  were  two  distinct  descriptions  of  magis- 
trates in  the  Roman  commonwealth.  (2.)  The  first  were  enume- 
rated as  consuls,  tribunes  of  the  people,  censors,  aediles,  praetors  and 
quffistors.  (3.)  These  were  chosen  at  regular  intervals,  and  were 
common  under  the  republican  form  of  government.  (4.)  They  were 
termed  ordinary  magistrates. 

XLV. — (1.)  The  other  description  of  magistrates  comprised 
dictators,  decemviri,  military  tribunes,  and  an  officer  called  the 
interrex.  (2.)  These  functionaries  were  chosen  only  in  emergencies, 
and  were  called  tvtraordinary  magistrates. 

XIjVI. — (1.)  Roman  magistrates  were  chosen  either  from  the 

XLIL— (1.)  What  law  did  the  plebeians  pass?  (2.)  What  did  they  succeed 
m  doing  when  united  as  a  body '.'     (3.)  How  did  they  modify  the  senate  ? 

XLIII. — (1.)  Of  whom  did  Roman  magistrates  consist?  (2.)  What  author- 
ity had  magistrates  ?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  senators,  judges,  and  other  officers  ? 
(4.)  What  occurred  when  democracy  triumphed? 

XLIV — (1.)  How  many  descriptions  of  magistrates  were  there  ?  (2.)  How 
were  the  first  enumerated?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  these  ?  (4.)  What  were  they 
termed  ? 

XLV.— (1.)  What  did  the  other  descriptions  comprise?  (2.)  What  is  said 
01  these  ? 

XLVL — (1.)  From  what  classes  or  persoud  were  Roman  magistrates  chosen  ? 


The  Roman  Commonwealth.  171 

noble  classes,  or  from  the  people  at  large.  (2.)  Those  elected  from 
the  former  were  called  patrician  magistrates  ;  those  from  the  latter, 
plebeian  magistrates. 

XL VII. (1-)  Patrician  magistrates  could  claim  to  be  priests. 

(2.)  They  possessed  power,  as  such,  to  dissolve  an  assembly  of  the 
people,  if  they  considered  the  day  of  meeting,  or  other  circumstances, 
to  be  unlucky. 

XLVIII. (1.)    The    magistrates  called  consuls  were  elected 

annually,  after  the  last  king  had  been  expelled.  (2.)  Authority 
was  exercised  by  two  alternately— that  is,  one  governed  the  first 
mouth,  another  the  second  mouth.  (3  )  No  citizen  was  considered 
eligible  to  be  consul  till  he  was  forty-two  years  old. 

XLIX.— (1.)  A  consul  was  attended  by  twelve  officers,  called 
lidors,  or  sergeants.  (2.)  Each  carried  a  bundle  of  birch  rods,  with 
an  axe  in  the  middle  of  them.  (3  )  The  rods  signified  authority  to 
punish  small  offenders,  and  the  axe  denoted  power  to  deal  with 
great  criminals. 

L, (1.)  The  governing  consul  sat  in  a  chair  of  state,  made  of 

ivory,   called  the  Curule  Chair.      (2.)    He  wore  a   purple   gown, 

richly   embroidered,    to    distinguish    him    from    otlier    magistrates. 

(3.)  The  year  in  which  consuls  held  authority  was  called  by  their 

names. 

Li._(l.)  After  the  creation  of  consuls,  two  other  officers  were 

appointed  by  the  senate,  and  called  censors.     (2.)  Censors  made  a 

registration  of  the  people,*and  placed  every  citizen  in  the  hundred, 


(2.)  How  were  they  distinguished  ? 

XLVn.— (1.)  What  could  patrician  magistrates  claim  to  be  ?  (2,)  Wiiat 
power  did  they  possess  when  priests? 

XLVIII. (1.)  When  were  the  consuls  elected?  (2.)  How  was  au- 
thority  exercised  by   them?      (;5.)    When  was   a   citizen  not  eligible  to  be 

consul  ? 

XLIX.— (1.)  How  was  a  consul  attended?  (2.)  What  did  each  iictor  carry? 
(3.)  What  did  these  emblems  signify? 

L.  -(1.)  How  was  the  governing  consul  distinguished?  (2.)  What  did  he 
wear?     (.^.)  What  is  said  of  the  year  during  wliich  consuls  held  office  ? 

T,T. a.)  What  other   oflicers  were  appointed  by  the  senate?     (2.^  What 


\J2  History  of  Governments. 

or  parish,  where  he  belonged.  (3.)  They  valued  each  man's  pro- 
perty, and  had  power  to  inquire  into  his  manner  of  life.  (4.)  If  a 
citizen  were  a  bad  father  or  husband,  an  idler,  or  loose  in  his  habits, 
the  censors  took  notice,  and  could  punish  him  for  his  faults. 

lill. — (1.)  Censors  remained  in  office  during  one  lustrum,  which 
consisted  of  five  years.  (2.)  It  was  their  duty  to  divide  and  estab- 
lish tributes,  taxes,  imposts,  and  tolls,  and  make  reports  at  the  end 
of  their  term.  (3.)  They  were  required  to  be  men  of  the  best  repu- 
tation for  virtue. 

LIII. — (1.)  Two  other  officers  were  appointed  for  the  assistance 
of  consuls  in  government.  (2.)  These  were  called  Prcetors,  and 
exercised  authority  in  matters  of  justice.  (3.)  One  of  them 
judged  controversies  between  citizen  and  citizen.  (4.)  The  other 
examined  matters  of  dispute  between  citizens  and  foreigners. 
(5.)  The  number  of  praetors  was  increased  with  the  growth  of  the 
commonwealth. 

LiIV. — (1.)  Another  Roman  magistrate  was  called  the  City 
Prefect.  (2.)  He  had  authority  to  decide  matters  between  masters 
and  servants,  or  orphans  and  guardians,  and  buyers  and  sellers. 
(3.)  This  officer,  in  later  times,  wielded  great  powers,  and  acted  as 
chief  magistrate  in  the  absence  of  the  regular  head  of  gov- 
ernment. 

LV. — (1.)  Consuls  were  at  first  chosen  from  the  nobility,  and 
none  but  a  noble  was  considered  worthy  of  the  office.  (2.)  This 
occasioned  violent  disputes,  until  an  arrangement  was  made  between 
the  patricians  and  plebeians. 

was  the  business  of  censors?  (3.)  What  did  they  do,  and  what  power  had 
they?     (4.)  What  authority  had  they  over  bad  citizens? 

LII (1.)  What  was  a  censor's  term  of  office  ?     (2.)  What  was  it  their  duty 

to  do?     (3.)   What  were  they  required  to  be  ? 

TJTT. — (1.)  Who  assisted  the -consuls  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  these  officers? 
(3.)  What  did  one  of  them  do?  (4.)  What  did  the  other  do?  (5.)  How  was 
the  number  of  prsetors  increased  ? 

LIV. —  (1.)  What  was  another  magistrate  called?  (2.)  What  was  his  author- 
ity ?     (?,)  What  waa  the  position  of  this  officer  in  later  times  ? 

LV, — (1  )  What  is  said  concerning  consuls  at  first ?  (2.)  What  di3  this 
occasion  ? 


The  Roman  Commonwealth.  '  173 

IjVI. — (1.)  By  agreement,  the  consuls  were  discontinued,  and 
two  chief  magistrates  were  chosen,  called  Tribunes,  or  protectors  of 
the  people.     (2.)  They  were  elected  by  the  assembly  of  the  people. 

LVII. — (1.)  Tribunes  possessed  power  to  stop  any  proceedings 
of  the  senate  wliich  they  deemed  injurious  to  the  people.  (2.)  They 
were  not  allowed  a  voice  in  the  senate,  but  sat  outside  the  hall  of 
meeting.  (3.)  When  a  law  was  passed  by  the  senators,  it  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  tribunes.  (4.)  If  they  did  not  consider  it  just,  they 
returned  it,  and  if  they  approved  it,  they  subscribed  the  letter  T. 

LVIII. — (1.)  Tribunes  kept  their  houses  open  by  night  and  dj,y, 
and  were  obliged  to  remain  in  the  city  every  day  in  the  yci;r. 
(2.)  Citizens  who  were  oppressed  or  injured  could  claim  protection 
and  shelter  in  the  house  of  a  tribune. 

LIX. — (1.)  The  ^diles  were  another  class  of  Roman  magis- 
trates. (2.)  The  first  sediles  were  chosen  from  the  senators. 
(3.)  To  these  were  afterward  added  plebeian  gediles,  elected  by  the 
people.  (4.)  Senatorial  sediles  possessed  authority  one  year,  and 
l)lebeian  aediles  the  ne.^t  year. 

LiX. — (1.)  .^diles  had  charge  of  repairing  public  buildings,  and 
supervising  the  location  of  private  ones,  (2.)  They  inspected 
weights  and  measures,  and  examined  frauds  and  adulterations  in 
provisions  and  other  wares.  (3.)  They  took  care  of  aqueducts  and 
other  water- works,  and  made  arrangements  for  festivals,  o-ames,  and 
public  ceremonies. 

IjXI. — (1.)  There  was  another  class  of  ajdiles,  acting  as  super- 

LVI. — (1.)  What  was  effected  by  agreement?  (2.)  How  were  tribunes 
elected  ? 

IjVII.~(1.)  What  power  had  the  tribunes?  (2.)  What  were  they  not 
allowed?  {?,.)  What  part  did  they  take  regarding  laws?  (4.)  Wiiat  did 
they  do? 

LVin. — (1.)  What  was  the  custom  of  tribunes?  (2.)  What  could  be  claimed 
of  them? 

LIX. — (1.)  What  were  the  ^diles  f  (2.)  How  were  the  first  asdiles  chosen  ? 
(3.)  What  were  afterward  added  V     (4.)  What  authority  was  possessed  by  each  ? 

LX. — (1.)  Of  what  had  aediles  charge?  (2.)  What  else  did  they  do? 
(3.)  What  other  duties  were  performed  by  aediles  ? 

IJCL— (1.)  What  is  said  regarding  another  class  of  these    Roman  aFidUcsT 


174  History  of  Governments. 

intendents  of  markets,  overseeing  corn  aud  meats.  (2.)  They  pro* 
vided  for  seasons  of  scarcity,  by  storing  up  grains  for  public  benefit 
liXII. — (1.)  The  Triumviri,  or  Triumvirs,  were  different  ma- 
gisterial bodies,  or  commissions,  of  three  men  each.  (2.)  One  of 
these  committees  of  three  comprised  the  three  high-sheriffs,  who 
took  charge  of  prisons  and  the  punishment  of  malefactors.  (3.) 
Another  commission  of  three  acted  as  bankers,  and  had  authority 
to  pay  poor  men's  debts  out  of  the  public  treasury.  (4.)  Another 
body  of  three  enlisted  soldiers  for  the  army,  and  another  made  ar- 
rangements for  Roman  citizens  who  wished  to  go  out  as  colonists. 

LiXIII. — (1.)  The  first  officers  sent  to  govern  provinces  and 
colonies  received  their  commissions  from  the  senate.  (2.)  They 
were  called  consuls  and  prsetors,  the  first  being  military,  and  the 
last  civil,  heads  of  provinces.  (3.)  The  consul  was  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  soldiers,  the  praetor  chief  judge  of  the  people.  (4.) 
Afterward  these  officers  were  called  Proconsuls  and  Proprcetors 
(5.)  There  were  other  provincial  officers  called  quaestors,  or  trea- 
surers, besides  military  tribunes,  centurions,  prefects,  and  other 
assistants. 

JjXIV, — (1.)  Roman  magistrates,  called  quaestors,  were  public 
treasurers  and  collectors  of  revenue.  (2.)  The  tributes,  duties, 
taxes,  and  all  money  due  from  districts,  corporations,  or  individuals, 
were  collected  by  these  officers.  (3.)  They  were  called  city  quaest- 
ors, to  distinguish  them  from  provincial  quaestors.  (4.)  Plunder 
taken  in  w^ar  was  given  in  charge  to  the  city  quaestors. 

liXV. — (1.)  A  body  oi  extraordinary  magistrates,  called  Decem- 

(2.)  What  did  they  provide  for? 

LXII. — (1.)  What  were  the  triumviri,  or  triumvirs?  (2.)  What  did  one  of 
these  committees  of  three  comprise?  (-3.)  What  was  another?  (4.)  What 
were  other  triumviri  ? 

LiXm. —  (1.)  How  were  provincial  governors  commissioned?  (2.)  What 
were  they  called  ?  (3.)  What  were  their  distinct  positions?  (4.)  What  were 
these  officers  afterward  named  ?     (5.)  What  other  provincial  officers  ? 

liXIV. — (1.)  What  were  the  quaestors?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  public  moneys? 
(3.)  By  what  name  were  they  distinguished  ?  (4)  What  is  said  concerning 
plunder? 

LXV. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  Decemviri,  cr  body  of  Ten  Men? 


The  Roman  Commonwealth.    .  175 

mi,  or  Tea  Men,  was  established  by  the  Romans  between  the  time 
of  consuls  and  period  of  tribunes.  (2.)  Under  the  Decemviri,  the 
laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  were  adopted,  and  written  on  twelve 
tablets  of  brass.  (3.)  The  power  of  these  magistrates  was  the  same 
that  had  been  exercised  by  consuls.  (4.)  One  of  the  ten  acted  as 
chief  magistrate  the  first  month,  another  the  second,  and  so  on. 
(5.)  These  Decemviri  became  oppressive,  and  their  office  was  abol- 
ished in  the  third  year  of  its  existence. 

LXVI. — (1.)  Another  extraordinary  magistrate  was  taken  by 
lot,  in  times  of  need,  from  the  senate,  to  supply  a  vacancy  that 
might  occur  in  the  chief  magistracy.  (2.)  This  magistrate  was 
called  an  Inierrex,  and  his  authority,  while  it  continued,  was  the 
same  as  the  officer  whose  place  he  filled. 

LXVII. — (1.)  The  Dictator  was  a  chief  magistrate  chosen  in 
time  of  sudden  war,  or  when  dangers  menaced  the  commonwealth. 
(2.)  The  Dictator  was  supreme  ruler  of  the  state,  and  called  Fopuli 
Magister,  meaning  master  of  the  people.  (3.)  He  was  elected 
for  six  months,  and  if  necessity  continued,  could  be  reelected.  (4.) 
He  appointed  a  lieutenant,  called  master  of  the  horse,  to  govern  in 
his  absence  from  the  city.  (5.)  There  was  no  appeal  to  the  people 
from  the  acts  of  a  Dictator. 

LXVIII. — (1.)  There  were  military  tribunes  holding  command 
in  the  army,  who  were  generally  chosen  by  the  people  in  their  as- 
semblies. (2.)  Sometimes  they  were  elected  by  the  soldiers  them- 
selves. (3.)  They  exercised  the  authority  that  is  in  modern  times 
held  by  marshals,  or  colonels.  (4.)  Each  military  tribune  com- 
manded a  thousand  foot  soldiers. 


(2.)  What  laws  were  adopted  under  them  ?  (3.)  What  was  the  authority  of 
the  Decemviri  ?  (4.)  How  did  the  ten  magistrates  exercise  power  ?  (5  )  What 
became  of  the  body  of  officers  ? 

LXVI. — (1.)  What  magistrate  was  chosen  by  lot?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  this 
magistrate  ? 

liXVn.— (I.)  What  was  a  dictator?  (2.)  What  was  his  power?  (.3.)  What 
was  his  term  of  office  ?  (4.)  What  did  he  appoint?  (5.)  What  is  said  regard- 
ing his  acts  ? 

LXVIII.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  military  tribunes?  (2.)  How  were  they 
sometimes  chosen  ?  (3.)  What  authority  did  they  exercise  ?  (4.)  How  many 
men  did  a  military  tribune  command  ? 


176  •         History  of  Governments. 

LXIX. — (1.)  The  creation  of  extraordinary  officers,  such  as 
dictators  and  other  absolute  rulers,  occasioned  the  ruin  of  the 
Roman  republic.  (2.)  Unscrupulous  men  became  possessed  of  un- 
limited power  over  the  revenues  and  armies  "of  the  state,  and  used 
both  for  their  personal  aggrandizement. 

XiXX. — (1.)  When  Sylla,  a  Roman  general,  was  made  dictator 
for  life,  he  ruled  the  state  despotically,  and  established  his  authority 
by  murdering  thousands  of  his  fellow-citizens.  (2.)  He  was  the 
chief  of  an  aristocratic  party,  overthrowing  Marius,  a  leader  of  the 
democracy. 

IjXXI. — (1.)  Julius  Csesar,  another  Roman  general,  overcame 
Porapey,  his  rival,  after  a  civil  war,  and  was  made  dictator  for  life. 
(2.)  He  received  the  title  of  Imperator,  or  Emperor,  as  a  mark  of 
honor.  (3.)  Imperator  was  a  military  title,  bestowed  on  a  general 
who  had  slain  a  thousand  men  in  battle. 

LXXII. — (1.)  After  Julius  Ca3sar's  death,  a  triiimvirate  of 
magistrates  had  chief  pov/er  given  to  them  in  the  commonwealth 
for  five  years.  (2.)  When  five  years  expired,  the  triumvirate  refused 
to  resign  their  authority.  (3.)  They  possessed  power  to  make 
new  laws,  or  change  old  ones,  without  consulting  either  senate  or 
people.  (4.)  They  could  judge  and  condemn  any  Roman  at  their 
pleasure. 

XjXXIII. — (1.)  One  of  this  triumvirate  succeeded  in  usurping 
entire  authority,  and  made  himself  Imperator.  (2.)  The  Roman 
citizens  then  lost  all  voice  in  choosing  their  magistrates,  and  the 
republic  was  changed  into  a  monarchy,  supported  by  military 
force. 

LXIX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  extraordinary  officers'?  (2.)  Who  became 
thereby  possessed  of  power  ? 

LXX.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Sylla?     (2.)  What  position  did  he  hold? 

LXXL— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Julius  Cajsar?  (2.)  What  title  was  given  to 
him  ?     (3  )  What  is  said  of  this  title  ? 

IjXXII. — (1.)  What  took  place  after  Julius  Ca;sar's  death?  (2.)  What  waa 
the  result?  (3.)  What  power  did  this  triumvirate  possess ?  (4.)  What  could 
they  do  ? 

LXXm. — (1.)  What  did  oue  of  the  triumvirs  succeed  in  doing  ?  (2.)  What 
followed  the  usurpation  ? 


The   Roman  Commonwealth.  ^177 

LXXrV. —  (1.)  The  history  of  the  Roinau  commonwealth  shows 
what  evils  arise  from  the  influence  of  privileged  classes.  (2.)  The 
distinction  yielded  to  older  and  wealthier  families,  and  to  those  who 
held  office,  led  the  descendants  of  such  persons  to  consider  them- 
selves better  than  the  children  of  poorer  people,  who  had  not  held 
office.  (3.)  This  occasioned  separation  into  higher  and  lower  ranki 
of  citizens. 

LXXV. — (1.)  The  next  disorder  that  afflicted  the  community 
was  the  inequality  of  condition  occasioned  by  luxurious  habits  of 
the  higher  classes.  (2.)  These  habits  induced  them  to  buy  large 
estates,  and  hundreds  of  slaves  to  perform  all  labor  for  them.  (3.) 
This  deprived  the  poorer  citizens  of  employment,  a^  means  of  sup- 
port, and  made  them  dependent  on  the  rich. 

liXXVI. — (1.)  By  degrees,  the  poorer  classes  lost  their  influ- 
ence, and  were  stripped  of  political  privileges  and  rights,  one  by 
one.  (2.)  A  nobility  obtained  control  of  all  offices,  and  the  repub- 
lic fell  into  the  hands  of  ambitious  soldiers.  (3.)  At  last,  it  was 
overturned,  to  make  room  for  a  despotism. 

LXXVII. — (1.)  When  the  Roman  community  was  small,  every 
individual  claimed  a  share  in  government,  (2.)  Roman  citizens  met 
together  in  the  market-place  of  their  city,  and  gave  their  votes  in  a 
loud  voice.  (3.)  In  those  meetings,  all  males  over  seventeen  years 
old,  and  under  sixty,  were  allowed  to  have  a  voice. 

LiXXVIII. — (1.)  Afterward,  the  people  elected  their  magis- 
trates by  ballot,  in  a  simple  way.     (2.)  The  name  of  every  candi- 

LXXrV. — (1.)  What  does  the  history  of  the  Roman  commonwealth  show? 
(2.)  What  remark  is  made  regarding  different  families  ?  (3.)  What  did  this 
occasion  ? 

LXXV.— (1.)  What  disorder  next  afflicted  the  community  ?  (2.)  What  did 
these  habits  induce  ?     (3.)  What  was  the  effect  of  this  ? 

LXXVI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  poorer  classes?  (2.)  What  followed ? 
(3.)  What  was  the  last  consequence? 

LXXVII. — (1.)  What  was  the  position  of  an  individual  when  the  communitv 
was  small?  (2.)  What  did  Roman  citizens  do?  (3.)  Who  were  allowed  a 
f  oice  ? 

liXXVin.— (1.)  What  afterward  took  place?     (2.)  What  is  said  of  can.U- 

8* 


lyS  History  of  Governments. 

date  for  office  was  written  on  a  small  tablet,  and  each  Toter  re^ 
ceived  all  the  names.  (3.)  The  people  then  went  up  to  the  place 
of  voting  by  hundreds,  each  company  under  leadership  of  its  oldest 
citizen.  (4.)  Every  voter  then  cast  whatever  tablet  he  liked  into 
a  chest  as  he  passed.  (5.)  The  names  on  all  the  tablets  were  after- 
ward examined  by  appointed  tellers,  or  counters,  called  scrutators. 
(6.)  The  citizen  whose  name  was  on  the  greatest  number  of  tablets 
was  declared  elected. 

LXXIX.— (1.)  When  a  law  was  proposed  to  be  passed  upon 
by  the  people,  it  was  written  on  a  large  tablet  and  hong  up  in  the 
market-place.  (2.)  There  it  remained  during  three  market-days, 
80  that  all  the  people  might  read  and  think  about  it.  (3.)  The 
citizens  were  then  called  together,  and  each  received  a  small  tablet 
with  the  letter  A.  on  it,  and  another  with  the  two  letters  V.  R.  on 
it,  (4.)  "A."  was  a  vote  against  the  law,  and  "V.  R."  a  vote  in 
favor  of  it.  (5.)  The  citizens  then  marched  by  the  chests  and 
threw  in  whatever  tablets  they  liked  best,  each  individual  for  him- 
self. (6.)  When  the  tablets  were  examined,  it  became  known 
whether  the  la\j  was  passed  or  not. 

LXXX. (1.)  Every  Roman  citizen  did  not  have  the  right  of 

first  proposing  a  law.  (2.)  Only  certain  of  the  principal  magis- 
trates enjoyed  that  privilege.  (3.)  These  principal  magistrates  bad 
power,  likewise,  according  to  their  rank,  to  call  meetings  of  the 
people,  or  to  adjourn  them,  if  they  considered  the  time  unfavorable. 
(4.)  They  belonged  to  the  priesthood,  and  were  called  Awgwi^. 

LXXXI.— (1.)  The  privilege  of  adjourning  public  assemones 
was  given  to  priestly  magistrates,  because  of  the  superstition  of  the 

dates?  (3.)  What  did  the  people  do?  (4.)  What  did  each  voter  then  do? 
(5.)  What  was  afterward  done  ?     (6.)  What  was  the  result  ? 

LXXIX.— (1.)  What  is  said  about  a  proposed  law  ?  (2.)  How  long  did  it 
hang  there?  (3.)  What  was  then  done?  (4.)  What  was  signified  by  those 
letters?  (5.)  What  did  the  citizens  do  with  their  tablets?  (6.)  What  was 
the  result? 

LXXX.— (1.)  What  is  said  about  proposing  a  law?  (2.)  Who  enjoyed  the 
privilege?     (3.)  What  other  power  had  they?     (4.)  What  were  these  magis- 

trates? 

LXXXI.— (1.)  Why  was  the  privilege  of  adjourning  public  meetings  given 


The  Roman  Commonwealth.  179 

people.  (2.)  It  was  thought  that  these  officers  knew  what  days 
were  unlucky,  and  the  citizens  yielded  to  them  the  authority  to 
convene  or  dismiss.  (3.)  This  authority  was  afterward  used  to 
favor  the  higher  classes  and  oppress  the  plebeians. 

LXXXII. — (1.)  There  were  three  kinds  of  public  assemblies 
among  the  Romans.  (2.)  The  first  were  meetings  of  citizens  in 
their  parishes,  or  curioe,  of  which  there  were  thirty.  (3.)  The 
second  were  meetings  in  hundreds,  or  centuries.  (4.)  The  third  were 
asseml)lies  of  wards,  or  tribes. 

IjXXXIII. — (1.)  The  earliest  Roman  political  meetings,  for 
choice  of  officers,  or  legislation,  were  assemblies  of  all  the  people. 
(2.)  The  citizens  of  each  parish  followed  their  principal  man  to  the 
market-place,  and  every  citizen  cast  his  own  vote.  (3.)  This  was 
a  democratic  form  of  exercising  the  right,  and  insured  popular 
government. 

IjXXXIV. — (1.)  An  alteration  of  this  simple  democratic  form 
was  made  in  the  time  of  TuUus  Hostilius,  third  king  of  Rome.  (2.) 
The  people  were  numbered  and  divided  into  hundred-^,  or  centuries, 
and  citizens  voted  by  centuries,  instead  of  by  each  man's  ballot. 

XjXXXV. — (1.)  Under  Servius  Tullius,  si.vth  king,  a  second 
encroachment  on  the  people's  power  was  brought  about.  (2  )  The 
value  of  every  man's  property  was  ascertained,  and  tiie  whole  popu- 
lation was  divided,  according  to  property,  into  six  classes. 

LXXXVI. — (1.)  The  first  class  consisted  of  citizens  who  pos- 

to  priestly  magistrates  ?  (2.)  What  was  thought?  (.S.)  In  whose  favor  wa 
this  autiiority  exercised  ? 

LXXXII. — (1.)  Wliat  is  said  of  popular  assemblies?  (2.)  What  were  the 
first?     (3.)  Wiiat  were  the  second?     (4.)   What  were  the  third? 

LXXXm. —  (1.)  What  were  the  earliest  political  meetings?  (2.)  What  did 
the  citizens  of  each  parish  do  ?  (3.)  What  is  remarked  concerning  this 
practice  ? 

IjXXXIV. — (1.)  When  was  this  simple  form  changed?  (2.)  How  were  the 
people  arranged  to  vote? 

LXXXV.— (1.)  What  occurred  under  the  sixth  Roman  king  ?  (2.)  What 
arrangement  was  made  affecting  the  people  ? 

TiXXXVI. — (1.)    Of  what  did  the  first   class  of  Roman  citizena  consist  f 


i8o  History  of  Governments. 

sessed  a  thousand  dollars'  worth  of  property.  (2  )  There  were  nine 
thousand  eight  hundred  citizens  in  this  class.  (3.)  They  were  ar- 
ranged into  eighty  bands,  containing  a  hundred  footraen  each,  and 
eighteen  bands  containing'  a  hundred  horsemen  each.  (4.)  This 
formed  ninety-eight  centuries  of  citizens,  every  citizen  worth  a 
thousand  dollars.  (5.)  Members  of  this  division  were  called  classi- 
cal citizens,  to  distinguish  them  from  all  other  persons. 

IjXXXVII. — (1.)  The  next  class,  or  division,  comprised  all 
Roman  citizens  whose  property  was  valued  at  seven  hundred  dollars. 
(2.)  This  class  contained  two  thousand  two  hundred  citizens,  ar- 
ranged in  twenty  centuries  of  footmen,  and  two  centuries  of  ar- 
morers and  other  artists. 

IjXXXVIII. — (1.)  The  third  class  consisted  of  citizens  worth 
five  hundred  dollars  each.  (2.)  Of  these  there  were  twenty  cen- 
turies of  footraen.  (3.)  Members  of  the  fourth  class  were  required 
to  be  worth  two  hundred  dollars  each  ;  this  class  contained  twenty 
centuries  of  footmen,  and  two  centuries  of  musicians,  such  as  trum- 
peters, drummers,  and  the  like. 

XjXXXIX. — (1.)  The  fifth  class  was  composed  of  citizens  who 
had  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars  in  property,  and  it  contained 
thirty  centuries  of  footmen.  (2.)  The  sixth,  or  lowest  class,  con- 
sisted of  thriftless  poor  men,  who  owned  nothing,  of  whom  there 
was  about  one  century. 

XC — (1.)  All  these  classes  together  composed  the  army,  or 
militia,  of  the  republic.  (2.)  Half  the  centuries  in  each  class  were 
made  up  of  young  men,  who  could  go  out  to  war,  and  the  other  half 


(2.)  How  many  were  there?  (3.)  How  were  they  arranged  ?  (4.)  What  did 
this  form  ?     (5.)  What  were  these  citizens  called? 

IjXXXVn. — (1.)  What  did  the  next  class  comprise  ?  (2.)  How  many  citi- 
zens were  there  in  this  class? 

LiXXXVm. — (1.)  Of  what  did  the  third  class  consist?  (2.)  How  many 
centuries  were  in  it  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  fourth  class? 

LXXXrX.— (1.)  Who  comprised  the  fifth  class  ?  (2.)  What  was  the  cha- 
racier  of  the  sixth  class  ? 

XC. — (1.)  What  did  all  these  classes  together  compose?  (2.)  How  were 
the   centuries   classified,    as   regarded   the   old    men   and   the    young   iuen  ? 


The  Roman  Commonwealth.  i8l 

of  old  men,  who  could  defend  Uie  city  at  home.     (3.)  The  comman- 
der of  each  hundred  was  called  a  centurion, 

XCI. — (1.)  In  casting  ballots,  a  vote  was  first  taken  among  all 
the  members  of  a  century.  (2.)  If  a  majority  of  all  voted  for  a 
particular  person,  or  law,  this  was  considered  the  choice  of  the 
entire  hundred.  (3.)  Each  century  then  cast  its  united  vote  ac- 
cording as  the  decision  had  been.  (4.)  The  wealthiest  class  of 
citizens,  containing  ninety-eight  centuries,  had  ninety-eight  votes, 
when  the  ballot  was  taken  by  hundreds.  (5.)  It  possessed  the  privi- 
lege, or  prerogative,  of  casting  its  votes  before  the  other  five  classes. 

XCII. — (1.)  The  other  five  classes,  altogether,  contained  only 
uinety-three  centuries,  and  could  cast  but  ninety-three  votes.  (2.) 
If  the  centuries  of  the  first  class  agreed  for  or  against  a  candidate 
or  a  law,  they  could  outvote  all  the  rest  of  the  people.  (3.)  If  cen- 
turies of  the  first  class  voted  similarly,  the  other  classes  were  not 
called  to  vote  at  all. 

XOIII. — (1.)  When  the  people  became  more  numerous,  they 
ordained  that  the  right  of  prerogative,  or  voting  first,  should  be 
determined  by  casting  lots.  (2.)  A  century  which  drew  the  first 
lot  gained  the  privilege  of  voting  first,  and  the  wealthier  centuries 
followed.  (3.)  The  rich  classes  were  usually  combined,  and  able  to 
carry  elections  against  the  poorer  people,  even  when  the  latter  com- 
prised a  larger  number  of  citizens. 

XCIV. — (1.)  Tlie  freedom  and  independence  of  a  Roman  citizen 
depended  upon  his  being  allowed  to  vote  and  speak  as  an  individual 
in  the  popular  assembly.     (2.)    Privileges  and  rights  consisted  in 

(3.)  What  was  the  captain  of  feach  hundred  called  ? 

XOL— (1.)  What  i3  said  about  casting  ballots?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  a 
majority  of  the  century?  (3)  What  did  each  century  then  do  ?  (4.)  How- 
many  votes  had  the  first  class  of  citizens  ?  (5.)  What  peculiar  privilege  did  it 
possess  ? 

XCIL— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  other  five  classes?  (2.)  What  was  the 
consequence  ?     {'4.)   What  if  centuries  of  the  first  class  all  voted  alike  ? 

XCIII. — (1.)  What  took  place  when  the  people  became  more  numerous? 
(2.)  How  did  this  result?     (H.)   What  is  said  of  the  wealthier  classes? 

XCIV. — (1.)  On  what  did  a  Roman's  freedom  and  independence  depend? 
(2.)  What    constituted    his    privileges   and    rights   as   an    original    citizen? 


i82  History  of  Governments. 

his  admissiou  to  ofiBce  and  equality  before  the  laws.  (3.)  All  these 
blessings  were  lost  to  the  Roman  people  because  they  became  indif- 
ferent to  their  value.  (4.)  They  permitted  the  power  to  pass  from 
their  hands  whilst  they  quarrelled  among  themselves.  (5.)  They 
allowed  classes  to  grow  up  with  distinct  interests,  dividing  one  from 
another.  (6.)  Consequently,  when  a  dictator,  or  other  despot, 
oppressed  them,  they  were  destitute  of  the  combination  necessary 
to  overthrow  his  power. 

(3.)  What  occasioned  the  loss  of  these  blessings  ?  (4.)  What  did  the  Roman 
people  permit  ?  (6.)  What  did  they  allow?  (6.)  What  was  the  consequence 
of  this  ? 


ANCIENT 
MONARCHICAL  SYSTEMS  OF  GOVERNMENT. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE    ASSYRIAN    DESPOTIC    MONARCHY. 

I. — (1.)  AsHUR,  the  SOU  of  Shem,  settled  on  a. plain  called 
Shiuar,  with  his  family  and  descendants,  and  their  flocks.  (2.)  Nim- 
rod,  the  grandson  of  Ham,  wandered  through  the  wilderness,  living  as 
a  hunter,  (3.)  After  Ashur  and  his  people  had  cultivated  the  land 
in  which  they  dwelt,  aud  were  living  a  peaceful  life,  Nimrod  came 
upon  them,  with  his  wild  followers,  and  took  possession  of  the 
country. 

II. — (1.)  The  nation  of  Assyrians  was  founded  by  the  children 
of  Shem,  and  afterward  the  descendants  of  Ham  came  from  the 
wilderness  and  shared  the  land  with  them.  (2.)  Several  cities 
were  erected  upon  the  plain  of  Shinar.  (3.)  Babylon  was  the 
principal  of  these  cities,  and  became  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian 
empire.  (4.)  It  was  built  by  Nimrod,  who  made  himself  master 
of  the  territory. 

III. — (1.)  Ashur  emigrated  from  Babylon,  with  his  family  and 
many  followers.  (2.)  He  settled  another  part  of  the  country,  and 
founded  the  city  of  Nineveh.     (3.)  The  future  Assyrian  nation  thus 

t— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Ashur  ?  (2.)  Of  Nimrod  ?  (3.)  What  did  Nimrod 
do  to  Ashur? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Assyrians?  (2.)  What  were  erected?  (3.) 
What  was  the  principal  city  ?     (4.)  Who  built  it  ? 

m.-(l.)  What  did  Ashur  do?      (2.)  What  city  did  he  found?      (8.)  What 

188 


184  History  of  Governments. 

sprang  from  two  families  that  had  increased  to  tribes.  (4.)  One  of 
these  tribes  was  composed  of  people  who  tilled  the  ground,  and 
raised  flocks  and  herds.  (5.)  The  other  tribe  was  a  nomadic,  or 
wandering  tribe,  subsisting  by  the  chase. 

IV. — (1.)  The  settled  tribe  became  farmers,  laborers,  and  shep 
herds,  building  towns,  and  houses,  and  cultivating  the  soil.  (_2.) 
The  hunter-meu  were  soldiers,  or  defenders  of  the  settlers,  and 
grew  to  be  most  powerful.  (3.)  Nimrod,  patriarch  of  the  hunters, 
was  probably  the  bravest  and  strongest  man  of  all  his  people. 
(4.)  Tiiey  were,  therefore,  willing  to  obey  him  as  a  chief,  as  well  as 
a  father  of  the  tribe. 

V. — (1.)  When  Nimrod  became  chief,  or  king  of  the  two  tribes, 
he  chose  his  ofiBcers  from  the  tribe  of  hunters,  who  were  his  own 
descendants.  (2.)  These  he  set  over  the  settled  tribe  as  governors 
of  tens,  hundreds,  and  thousands.  (3.)  When  Nimrod  died,  he  left 
his  eldest  son  to  be  chief  ruler  or  king,  in  his  place.  (4.)  Thus  the 
government  was  continued  as  a  hereditary  monarchy,  passing  from 
father  to  son. 

VI. — (1.)  In  the  course  of  time,  the  Assyrian  kingdom  aug- 
mented in  the  number  of  its  people,  and  became  a  very  powerful 
state.  (2.)  It  was  joined  also  by  a  small  nomadic  tribe  called 
Chaldeans,  descendants  of  Arphaxad,  one  of  the  sous  of  Shem. 
(3.)  These  Chaldeans  were  more  intelligent  than  the  two  original 
Assyrian  tribes.  (4.)  They  were  a  shepherd  people,  who  came  from 
the  mountainous  regions,  and  pretended  to  be  descended  from  the 
gods. 

VII. — (1.)  The  Chaldeans  taught  the  people  of  Assyria  that  the 

is  said  of  the  future  Assyrian  nation  ?  (4.)  Of  wliat  was  one  tribe  composed  ? 
(5.)  What  was  the  other  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  settled  tribe?  (2)  Of  the  hunter  tribe? 
(3.)  What  was  Nimrod?     (4.)  What  were  his  people  willing  to  do? 

V. — (1.)  Who  were  Nimrod's  oflScers?  (2.)  How  did  lie  arrange  them? 
(3.)  What  did  Nimrod  leave?     (4.)  What  did  the  government  become? 

VI. — (1.)  What  did  the  kingdom  become?  (2.)  By  whom  was  it  joined? 
(3.)  What  is  said  of  the  Chaldeans?     (4.) 'Whence  did  they  come  ? 

VIL — (1.)    What    did   the    Chaldeans   teach   to    the    people    of    Assyria? 


The  Assyrian  Despotic  Monarchy.  185" 

moon  and  stars  were  abodes  of  superior  beings,  who  liad  charge  of 
tlie  world.  (2.)  They  said  that  the  souls  of  kings  and  heroes  would 
go  to  those  heavenly  bodies  after  death,  and  become  gods  of  the 
Assyrians.  (3.)  They  taught  also  that  a  principal  god,  and  a  mul- 
titude of  inferior  gods,  dwelt  in  the  planets.  (4.)  Tliey  declared 
it  right  to  worship  them  all,  and  to  build  altars  for  the  offering  of 
sacrifice. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  Assyrian  kings  and  warriors  believed  what  the 
strangers  taught,  and  made  inferior  people  erect  altars  and  build 
houses  near  them  for  the  Chaldeans  to  live  in.  (2.)  The  Chaldeans 
became  a  priestly  family,  or  sacerdotal  tribe  of  the  Assyrians. 
(3.)  The  houses  built  for  their  residence  near  the  altars  were  called 
temples  of  the  gods,  and  the  priests  were  regarded  as  special  ser- 
vants of  those  deities. 

IX. — (1.)  The  Chaldean  priests  were  supported  by  offerings 
which  the  people  brought  to  their  temples.  (2.)  They  instructed 
the  children  of  the  king  and  chief  warriors,  and  were  selected  by 
the  monarch  as  his  coun.sellors  and  keepers  of  records.  (3.)  They 
carefully  kept  apart  from  all  other  people,  and  devoted  themselves 
to  study.  (4.)  They  examined  into  all  the  ancient  customs  of 
the  nation,  and  collected  them  together  in  sacred  books.  (5.)  The 
Chaldeans  thus  became  depositories  and  interpreters  of  law,  and 
gained  great  influence  with  both  rulers  and  people. 

X. — (1.)  When  the  Assyrian  nation  grew  powerful,  the  kings 
were  accustomed  to  lead  out  large  armies  against  neighboring  tribes. 
(2.)  In  this  way  they  extended  the  empire,  by  adding  conquered 
countries  to  their  own.     (3.)  The  king  of  Assyria  dwelt  in  one  of 

(2.)  What  did  they  say  concerning  souls  of  kings  and  heroes  ?  (3.)  What  did 
tliey  teach  concerning  gods  ?     (4.)  What  did  they  dechire  to  be  right  ? 

Vni.— (1.)  What  did  the  Assyrians  do?  (2.)  What  did  the  Chaldcnns 
become  ?  (3.)  What  were  their  dwellings  called,  and  how  were  they  regarded 
themselves  ? 

IX.— (1.)  How  were  the  Chaldean  priests  supported?  (2.)  What  stations 
did  they  hold  ?  (3.)  How  were  tlie  Chaldean  priests  distinguished  ?  (4.)  What 
did  they  do  regarding  laws?     (5.)   What  did  they  thus  become  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  was  the  custom  of  Assyrian  kings?  (2.)  What  did  they 
accomplish  ?     (3.)  What  is  remarked  concerning  the  mode  of  life  pursued  bj 


i86  History  of  Governments. 

his  great  cities,  surrounded  by  chief  officers,  priests,  and  warriors. 
(4.)  He  appointed  or  removed  these  officers  at  will,  and  was  vene- 
rated as  representative  of  the  nation's  gods. 

XI. — (1.)  The  king  set  princes  of  his  own  family,  or  chief  favor- 
ites, over  all  subject  countries.  (2.)  He  appointed  governors  of 
provinces  from  principal  Assyrian  families,  or  from  his  personal  ser- 
vants. (3.)  Generals  of  his  army  were  chosen  from  the  most  faith- 
ful soldiers.  (4.)  Over  cities  were  set  rulers,  who  appointed  infe- 
rior officers,  as  judges  and  sheriffs. 

XII. — (1.)  A  royal  treasurer  was  placed  in  every  subject  coun- 
try or  province,  with  officers  to  collect  tribute,  or  taxes,  of  the 
people.  (2.)  Every  provincial  ruler  was  assisted  and  watched  by 
one  or  more  counsellors  appointed  by  the  king.  (3.)  Chaldeans 
tilled  many  offices,  and  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  astronomy 
and  other  sciences,  interpretation  of  dreams,  and  prophesying. 

XIII. — (1.)  Next  to  the  king  himself  was  a  prime  minister,  or 
chief  ruler,  who  was  responsible  with  his  life  for  fidelity  to  the 
monarch.  (2.)  Under  this  chief  ruler  there  were  three  presidents, 
or  princes,  who  had  charge  of  three  great  departments  of  the 
empire.  (3.)  Under  the  presidents  were  princes  of  provinces  and 
governors. 

XIV". — (1.)  Me.nbers  of  the  priesthood  were  subject  to  the  king, 
as  well  as  the  princes  and  people.  (2.)  The  monarch  possessed 
power  of  life  and  death  over  every  inhabitant  of  his  empire. 

XV. — (1.)  During  the  reigns  of  Assyrian  kings,  they  subjected 
a  great  number  of  countries  to  their  swaV.      (2.)  Sometimes  they 

the  king?     (4.)  What  is  said  of  the  monarch's  power  and  position  ? 

XI. — (1.)  What  chief  rulers  did  the  king  appoint?  (2)  What  other  gov- 
ernors?    (3.)  Who  were  his  generals?     (4.)  How  were  cities  governed ? 

Xn. — (1.)  What  was  placed  in  every  subject  country?  (2.)  How  were 
provincial  rulers  assisted  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  Chaldeans? 

XIIJ. — (1.)  Who  was  next  to  the  king?  (2.)  Who  were  under  this  cliief 
ruler  ?     (3.)  Who  were  under  the  presidents  ? 

XIV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  priesthood?  (2)  What  power  did  the 
monarch  possess? 

XV. — (1.)  What  did  the  Assyrian  kings  do?     (2.)  What  did  they  sometimes 


The  Medean  Despotism.  187 

made  all  the  iuhabitauts  of  such  couutries  their  captives,  and  brouglit 
them  from  their  own  homes  to  labor  as  servants  in  tlie  land  of 
Assyria.  (3.)  Usually,  however,  the  conquered  people  were  allowed 
to  remain  as  before,  provided  they  paid  tribute  to  rulers  set  over 
them. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  ancient  Assyrian  empire  was  overthrown  in  the 
time  of  Daniel,  the  Hebrew  prophet,  as  we  learn  from  Scripture. 
(2.)  In  its  earliest  condition,  the  Assyrian  nation  was  innocent  and 
simple,  but  the  greater  part  of  its  population  ignorant  and  feeble. 
(3.)  They  became  an  easy  prey  to  an  invading  horde  of  roving 
soldiers. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  laboring  and  agricultural  tribes  sank  to  in- 
feriority, while  the  hunter  tribe  formed  a  class  above  them,  headed 
by  a  despotic  chief.  (2.)  The  seeds  of  decay  were  planted  in  the 
Assyrian  nation  in  its  earliest  infancy.  (3.)  The  disease  of  despot- 
ism fastened  upon  the  people,  and  grew  stronger  as  the  empire 
increased,  by  means  of  conquest  and  extension  of  territory. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE     MEDEAN     DESPOTISM. 

I. — (1.)  The  Medean  nation  wa*  descended  from  one  of  the 
descendants  of  Ja[)het,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah.  (2.)  The  original 
family  was  nomadic,  and  branched  off  into  six  tribes,  which  roved 
between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  Mt.  Taurus. 

II. — (1.)  Each  Medean  tribe  was  governed   by  a  patriarch  or 

do  to  the  inhabitants?     (3  )   What  was  their  usual  practice  ? 

XVI. — (1.)  Wheu  was  the  Assyrian  empire  overthrown  ?  (2.)  What  is 
said  of  tlie  Assyrian  nation?     (3.)  What  did  the  people  become? 

XVn. — ,1.)  What  distinctions  were  made  between  tribes  ?  (2.)  Wheu  did 
decay  attaclv  the  nation?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  despotism  ? 

I. — (1.)  From  whom  was  the  Medean  nation  descended?  (•!.)  What  was  the 
original  family? 

n. — ^1.)  Uow  was  each  tribe  of  the   Medean  family,  or   nation,  governed? 


i88  History  of  Governments. 

chief  elected  by  the  people.  (2.)  He  was  the  leader  in  war,  and 
judge  in  time  of  peace.  (3.)  During  the  reigns  of  Assyrian  kings, 
the  Medes  were  obliged  to  pay  tribute  to  those  despots. 

III. — (1.)  The  tribes  settled,  at  length,  in  villages,  and  devoted 
themselves  to  cultivating  the  earth  and  raising  flocks.  (2.)  Diifer- 
ent  communities  were  not  always  governed  well  by  their  judges, 
some  being  unjust  and  others  tyrannical. 

rV. — (1.)  The  judge  of  one  of  the  tribes  was  Dejoces,  who  was 
a  wise  and  politic  man.  (2.)  His  judgments  were  so  excellent,  that 
he  reconciled  all  the  people  of  his  tribe,  and  made  the  village  in 
which  he  lived  a  model  of  order. 

V. — (1.)  The  reputation  of  Dejoces  spread  through  all  the  tribes, 
and  people  came  from  every  village  to  bring  their  disputes  to  be 
decided  by  his  wisdom.  (2.)  In  this  way,  he  became  the  most 
respected  man  among  all  the  Medean  people. 

VI. — (1.)  When  Dejoces  found  himself  so  much  sought,  and 
that  his  countrymen  thought  him  the  wisest  of  men,  he  suddenly 
resigned  his  position  as  judge.  (2.)  He  declared  that  the  duties 
were  too  hard  to  perform,  and  interfered  with  his  domestic  in- 
terest. 

VII. — (1.)  He  advised  the  tribes  to  meet  together  in  council, 
and  consult  for  themselves  concerning  the  best  way  of  deciding  dis- 
putes and  adjusting  differences.  (2.)  A  great  meeting  was  there- 
fore called,  composed  of  all  the  Medes, 

VIII. — (1.)  Dejoces  did  not  go  to  the  council,  but  took  care  to 
have  his  friends  there.     (2.)  These  friends  proposed  that  the  tribes 

(2.)  What  authority  had  the  chief?     (3.)  What  were  the  Medes  obliged  to  do? 

m. — (1.)  What  did  the  tribes  do?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  diflFerent  com- 
munities ? 

rV. — (1.)  Who  was  Dejoces?     (2.)  What  is  said  of  his  judgments? 

V. — (1.)  What  was  the  consequence  of  the  judge's  wisdom  ?  (2.)  What  did 
Dejoces  become? 

VI.— (1.)  What  did  Dejoces  then  do?     (2  )    What  did  he  declare  ?. 

Vil. — (1.)  What  advice  did  Dejoces  give  the  tribes?  (2.)  What  was 
called  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  What  course  did  Dejoces  pursue  ?    (2.)  What  did  his  friends 


The  Medean  Despotism.  189 

should  continue  in  one  nation,  and  choose  Dejoces  to  be  its  king. 
(3.)  The  Medes  agreed  to  this,  and  elected  Dejoces,  who  thereupon 
became  monarch. 

IX. — (1.)  When  Dejoces  became  king,  he  called  upon  his  coun- 
trymen to  build  him  a  palace,  strongly  fortified.  (2.)  He  sur- 
rounded himself  with  a  strong  guard,  of  his  own  relatives  and 
personal  friends,  to  secure  his  authority. 

X. — (1.)  From  the  interior  of  his  palace,  Dejoces  sent  out  his 
commands,  to  be  obeyed  as  laws.  (2.)  He  fixed  certain  days  on 
which  to  hear  causes,  and  never  appeared  before  the  people  except 
with  great  ceremony. 

XI. — (1.)  Dejoces  built  great  cities  and  temples,  and  consoli- 
dated the  six  tribes.  (2.)  His  successors  led  the  people  to  war, 
and  became  despotic  rulers,  subjugating  other  countries,  and  ex- 
tending the  Medean  territory.  (3.)  The  Modes  became  masters  of 
the  Assyrian  empire,  but  were  afterward  deprived  of  their  own 
independence.  (4.)  Their  country  sank,  at  last,  into  a  province  of 
the  Persian  empire,  established  by  Cyrus  the  Great. 

XII. —  (1.)  The  Medes,  in  infancy,  were  a  peaceful,  wandering 
people,  but  afterward  became  warlike  and  predatory.  (2.)  Each 
individual  preserved  a  rude  freedom,  until  the  cunning  of  one  of 
their  rulers  secured  the  supreme  power.  (3.)  The  tribes  then 
became  divided  into  clans,  and  were  no  longer  a  united  people  of 
free  individuals. 

XIII. — (1.)  When  the  Medean  tribes  submitted  to  a  single  king, 

propose?     (3.)   What  was  agreed  upon  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What  did  their  new  king  ask  the  Medes  to  do?  (2.)  Kow  did  he 
strengthen  his  power? 

X. — (1.)  What  did  Dejoces  then  do?  (2.)  How  did  he  conduct  himself 
toward  the  nation  ? 

XI. — (1.')  What  did  Dejoces  accomplish  ?  (2.)  What  was  done  by  his  suc- 
cessors? {?,.)  What  occurred  to  the  Medes?  (4.)  What  was  the  fate  ol' their 
country  ? 

XII.— (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  Medes?  (2.)  What  of  each  indi- 
vidual?    (3.)   What  did  the  tribes  then  become? 

XIII. — (1.)  What  followed  the  choice  of  a  king  over  the   Medean  tribes? 


Kjo  History  of  Governments. 

they  became  a  nation  of  conquerors,  oppressing  weaker  states. 
(2.)  The  effect  of  this  was  to  make  them  luxurious  tyrants,  who 
forced  their  captive  enemies  to  perform  all  labor  for  their  support. 

XrV. — (1.)  Medean  history  shows  how  independent  and  hardy 
tribes  were  brought  under  national  government  and  made  powerful. 
(2.)  It  also  shows  how  such  a  nation  was  corrupted  by  success  in 
war,  until  it  became  feeble,  and  yielded  its  own  independence  with- 
out a  straggle. 


CHAPTER  III. 

TffE     PERSIAN      DESPOTISM. 

I.--(l.)  The  Persians  were  a  nomadic  people,  occupying  moun- 
tainous regions  of  Central  Asia,  and  divided  into  ten  clans.  (2.) 
Three  clans  composed  the  fighting  men,  three  were  tillers  of  the 
earth,  and  four  were  keepers  of  sheep.  (3.)  The  earliest  govern- 
ment of  each  clan  or  tribe  was  patriarchal. 

II. — (1.)  The  three  soldier  tribes  were  distinguished  from  each 
other  by  being  more  or  less  intelligent.  (2.)  They  were  united 
under  a  single  chief,  in  time  of  war,  and  were  always  superiors  of 
the  other  seven  tribes. 

III. — (1.)  Cyras,  elected  chief  of  the  principal  tribe,  was  the 
first  who  led  the  whole  nation  on  a  great  expedition.  (2.)  Under 
this  chief,  the  ten  tribes  revolted  against  Medean  government,  and 
overthrew  the  Assyrian  empire. 

(2.)  What  was  the  eifect  of  this? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  does  Medean  history  show?  (2.)  What  else  does  it 
show  ? 

I. —  (1.)  Who  were  the  Persians?  (2.)  How  were  the  ten  clans  divided? 
(8.)  What  was  the  government  of  each  ? 

n. — (1.)  How  were  the  soldier-tribes  distinguished  from  each  other? 
(2.)   How  were  they  united  in  time  of  war,  and  what  was  their  condition? 

m.— (1.)  Who  was  Cyrus?     (2.)  What  did  the  Persians  do  under  Cyrus? 


The  Persian  Despotism.  191 

rV. — (1.)  Cyrus  took  the  title  of  kiug  of  the  Persians,  and 
established  a  great  military  monarchy.  (2.)  He  placed  his  coun- 
trymen in  all  positions  of  authority.  (3.)  He  distributed  Persiaa 
generals  and  officers  througliout  the  whole  empire,  (4.)  He  formed 
large  armies  of  Assyrians,  Medes,  and  other  subject  people. 

V. — (1.)  Under  Cambyses  and  Darius,  the  Persiau  state  became 
a  despotism,  and  was  divided  into  extensive  districts.  (2.)  These 
districts  were  called  satrapies,  each  governed  by  a  royal  officer 
called  a  satrap. 

VI. — (1.)  The  king  of  Persia  claimed  unlimited  authority  over 
all  his  subjects,  high  and  low.  (2.)  He  issued  edicts,  which  at 
once  became  laws,  for  his  officers  to  execute,  and  his  subjects  to 
obey.  (3.)  He  was  supreme  judge  in  all  concerns  of  government 
and  people. 

VII. — (1.)  The  despot  of  Persia  was  called  the,  Great  King. 
(2.)  His  person  was  held  sacred  as  a  divinity,  and  was  approached 
by  all  with  adoring  respect. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  Persians  venerated  a  body  of  priesthood  called 
Magians,  or  wise  men.  (2.)  These  wise  men  were  teachers  of  the 
people,  as  the  Chaldeans  had  been,  amon'g  Assyrians  and  Medes. 

IX. — (1.)  The  Magians  kept  the  sacred  books  of  Persian  reli- 
gion and  laws.  (2.)  They  always  remained  a  distinct  tribe,  not 
mingling  with  other  tribes  or  people. 

X. — (1.)  The  king  selected  counsellors,  and  appointed  judges, 
from  the  Magian  priesthood.     (2.)    Local  judges  held  tribunals  in 

IV (1  )  What  is  said  of  Cyrus  ?     {'1.)  What  did  he  do  ?     (3.)  What  did  he 

distribute  ?     (4.)  What  did  he  form  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  took  place  under  Cambyses  aud  Darius  ?  (2.)  What  were 
these  districts  called,  and  how  governed? 

VL — (1.)  What  did  the  king  of  Persia  claim?  (2.)  What  were  his  edicts? 
(3  )  What  was  his  authority  ? 

VII. — (1.)  What  was  the  Persian  despot's  title?  (2.)  How  was  his  person 
regarded  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  Who  were  the  Magians?     (2.)  What  were  these  wise  men  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What  did  the  Magians  keep?     (2.)  WHiat  did  they  always  remain  » 

X. —  (1.)  Who  were  the  king's  counselK^rs  and  judges?  (2.)  What  is  said  of 
judges  ? 


tg2  History  of  Governments. 

every  city  and  district,  and  higher  judges  made  regular  journeys 
through  provinces,  to  hear  and  determine  difficult  causes. 

XI. — (1.)  The  Great  King  was  always  surrounded  by  ministers, 
favorites  and  flatterers.  (2.)  A  rigid  system  of  ceremony  was 
maintained,  to  which  all  submitted  who  approached  the  royal  pre- 
sence. 

XII. — (1.)  Courtiers,  masters  of  ceremony,  guards  and  slaves, 
crowded  all  che  passages  of  the  king's  palace.  (2.)  It  was  through 
their  influence  only  that  a  stranger  could  approach  their  master. 

XIII. — (1.)  Rulers  were  placed  over  cities,  towns,  and  parts  of 
towns.  (2.)  These  were  appointed  by  the  satrap  who  governed  the 
province  over  them,  and  were  accountable  to  him. 

XrV. — (1-)  Messengers  constantly  travelled  throughout  the  em- 
pire, to  discover  new  delicacies  for  the  king's  table,  furniture  for  his 
palace,  and  garments  or  ornaments  for  his  wear.  (2.)  The  choice  of 
everything  produced  in  any  province  belonged  to  the  king.  (3.)  It 
was  secured  for  him  by  the  satraps  and  rulers,  without  regard  to 
expense  of  treasure  or  life. 

XV. — (1.)  The  court  and  palace  of  every  satrap-were  modelled 
after  that  of  the  Great  King.  (2.)  Governors  and  rulers  under  a 
satrap  were  required  to  pay  him  almost  royal  honors. 

XVI. — (1.)  Inhabitants  of  nations  under  Persian  rule  were 
obliged  to  pay  a  tax  for  the  support  of  the  king,  and  to  maintain 
his  governors  and  rulers.  (2.)  The  Persian  tribes  alone  were  free 
from  tax,  being  masters  of  the  rest. 

XVII. — (1.)  When  the  Great  King  wished  to  distinguish  or  re- 
XL— (i.;  Who  surrounded  the  Great  King?     (2.)  What  system   was  main- 
tained ? 

XII. — (1.)  Who  crowded  the  royal  palace?     (2.'l  What  is  said  of  these? 
XTTT. — (1.)  Where  were  rulers  placed  ?     (2.)  By  whom  were  they  appointed  ? 
XIV. — (1.)  For  what  did  messengers  traverse  the  empire?     (2.)  What  be- 
longed to  the  king?     (3.)  How  was  it  secured  ? 

XV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  satrap's  court?     (2.)  What  of  his  subordinates  ? 
XVI.— (1.)  What  were    subjects   obliged  to  do?     (2.)  Who  were  exempt 
from  this  tax  ? 

XVn. — (1.)  How   were  favorites  of   the    Persian    Great   King   regarded? 


The   Persian  Despotism.  193 

ward  a  favorite,  he  sent  him  to  govern  a  rich  province,  as  satrap. 
(2.)  The  satrap  was  receiver  of  taxes,  paymaster  of  the  troops, 
and  representative  of  his  master  over  the  people.  » 

XVIII. — (1.)  A  military  oflBcer  was  appointed  by  the  king,  as 
general  over  the  army  of  every  satrapy.  (2.)  This  officer  was  ac- 
countable to  the  monarch,  for  security  and  order  in  the  province 
where  he  held  command. 

XIX. — (1.)  Scribes,  or  secretaries,  were  sent  by  the  king,  to  re- 
side in  the  palace  of  every  satrap.  (2.)  These  scribes  acted  as 
spies  and  agents  of  the  monarch,  and  communicated  his  commands 
to  the  satrap.  (3 )  The  satrap  was  obliged  to  obey  those  com- 
mands, whatever  they  might  be,  or  else  suffer  death. 

XX. — (1.)  The  Great  KiLg  sent  out  military  commissioners,  every 
year,  to  travel  through  all  the  empire,  with  an  army  of  faithful  sol- 
diers. (2.)  These  commissioners  possessed  authority  to  inquire 
into  the  management  of  provinces,  and  to  punish  or  commend  the 
satraps,  according  to  their  deserts. 

XXI. — (1.)  Sometimes  a  satrap  became  popular  and  powerful 
enough  to  revolt  against  the  Great  King,  and  set  up  an  independent 
despotism  over  his  own  province.  (2.)  When  such  a  revolt  took 
place,  the  king  marched  with  a  large  army,  from  other  satrapies,  to 
punish  the  rebellious  ones. 

XXII. — (1.)  Common  people  of  the  Persian  empire  were  num- 
bered by  tens,  each  ten  having  a  captain.  (2.)  Over  these  were 
captains  of  hundreds,  thousands,  and  ten  thousands.  (3.)  The 
generals  appointed  the  commanders  of  ten  thousands  and  thousands. 

(2.)  What  position  did  a  satrap  occupy  ? 

XVm. — (1.)  What  was  appointed  in  every  satrapy?  (2.)  How  was  this 
oflScer  accountable  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  Who  resided  in  every  satrap's  palace?  (2.)  What  was  their 
conduct?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  royal  commands? 

XX.— (1.)  What  did  the  king  send  out  yearly?  (2.)  What  autliority  had 
these  ? 

XXI. — (1.)  What  did  a  satrap  sometimes  become?  (2.)  What  did  the 
king  do  ? 

XXH. — (1.)  How  were  Persian  subjects  numbered  ?  (2.)  Who  were  E*t  CTer 
these?     (3.)  What  commanders   did  the  Persian  generals  appoint  to  office? 

9 


IQ^  History  of  Governments. 

(4.)  The  commanders  of  ten  thousands  appointed  the  captains  of 
hundreds  and  tens. 

XXIII. — (1.)  Being  thus  disciplined,  the  Persian  armies  could 
be  mustered  for  war  very  quickly.  (2.)  Military  officers  were 
always  Persians,  other  nations  being  regarded  as  bondsmen  to  the 
ruling  tribes. 

XXIV. — (1.)  The  great  Persian  despotism  was  controlled  by 
one  leading  people.  (2.)  The  original  Persians,  being  a  brave  and 
vigorous  race  of  men,  maintained  mastery  over  less  warlike  nations. 

XXV. (1.)  The  Persian  empire  was  an  extensive  military  des- 
potism, established  by  conquest,  and  sustained  by  force.  (2.)  Un- 
limited sovereignty  in  the  king,  and  unmurmuring  obedience  by  the 
people,  were  its  characteristics. 

XXVI. — (1.)  The  Persian  tribes,  before  the  time  of  Cyrus, 
were  a  rude  and  barbarous  people,  dwelling  among  rocks  and  bar- 
ren hills.  (2.)  Their  clothing  was  skins,  their  food  wild  fruits,  their 
drink  water. 

XXVII. — (1.)  In  the  course  of  a  few  reigns  of  Persian  kings 
over  rich  countries,  the  nation  lost  its  simple  habits,  and  became 
corrupted  by  luxury  and  power.  (2.)  The  ruling  tribes  grew  to 
be  haughty  tyrants  over  inferiors,  and  servile  followers  of  their  des- 
potic monarch. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  On  this  account,  the  Persian  state  became  dis- 
eased, and  ready  to  decay.     (2.)  It  was  destroyed,  in  its  tu;-:.,  as 


(4.)  Who  did  the  commanders  of  ten  thousand  appoint  ? 

XXni.— (1.)  What  was  the  consequence  of  this  discipline  ?  (2.)  What  were 
the  officers? 

XXIV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Persian  despotism  ?  (2.)  Who  were  the 
masters  ? 

XXV.— (1.)  What  was  the  Persian  empire?  (2.)  What  were  its  character- 
istics ? 

XXVI.— (1.)  What  were  the  Persian  tribes  before  Cyrus?  (2.)  What  was 
their  condition  ? 

XXVn.— (1.)  What  toolf  place  afterward  ?  (2.)  What  did  the  ruling  tribes 
become  ? 

XXVm.— (1  )  What  was  the  consequence  ?    (2.)  What  befell  the  empire  f 


Macedonian  Military  Monarchy.  195 

h  ha.l  overthrown  the  Medean  empire.  (3.)  Alexander  the  Great 
made  Persia  a  province  of  his  Macedonuxn  empire.  (4.)  After 
Alexander's  death,  it  fell  under  various  masters,  till  the  Mohammedan 
nations  at  last  subdued  it. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

MACEDONIAN      MILITARY     MONARCHY. 

I. — (1.)  The  military  empire  of  Alexander  the  Great  arose  from 
a  small  sovereignty  called  Macedon.  (2.)  Macedon  was  originally 
a  colony  of  Grecians  from  Argos,  who  settled  among  the  native 
barbarous  tribes,  and  became  ruling  families,  or  nobility,  of  the 
communities  which  they  founded. 

II. — (1.)  The  district  of  country  occupied  by  Macedonians  formed 
a  boundary  line  of  Europe  and  Asia.  (2.)  They  were  often  obliged 
to  pay  tribute  to  the  despots  of  Assyria,  and  afterward  of  Persia. 

III. — (1.)  The  government  of  Macedon  was  oligai'chical.  (2.) 
A  few  families  of  the  nobility  held  all  chief  offices,  and  rognrded 
their  king  as  only  first  among  themselves.  (3.)  The  authority  of 
the  king  was  merely  that  of  a  military  leader,  but  it  descended  from 
father  to  son. 

IV. — (1.)  When  Philip  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Macedon, 
the  state  was  divided  by  factions,  and  threatened  by  foreign  war. 
(2.)  Philip  created  a  new   military  force,  called  the   Macedonian 

(3.)  What  was  the  fate  of  Persia?  (4.)  What  became  of  the  country  after 
Alexander? 

I. —  (1.)  From  what  did  Alexander's  empire  arise?     (2.)  What  was  Macedon? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Macedonian  territory?  (2.)  What  were  the 
Macedonians  often  obliged  to  do  ? 

in.— (1.)  What  form  of  government  had  Macedon?  (2.)  Who  controlled 
it?     (3.)  What  was  the  king's  authority? 

IV. — (1.)  What  was  the  condition  of  Macedon  when  Philip  became  kinp? 
(2.)  What  did  Philip  do  ? 


10  History  of  Governments. 

phalanx,    and   obliged   herdsmen   and  farmers   of  his   country   io 
become  soldiers. 

v. — (1.)  When  he  grew  strong  enough,  Philip  declared  war 
against  several  neighboring  cities,  and  made  them  tributary  to 
Macedon.  (2.)  He  then  contrived  to  have  Macedon  acknowledged 
by  Athens,  Sparta,  and  other  Grecian  republics,  as  a  member  of  the 
Amphictyonic  League,  or  Confederacy  of  Grecian  States. 

VI. — (1.)  Philip  became  noted  as  an  able  military  commander, 
and  was  chosen  chief  of  all  armies  raised  by  confederated  Greek 
republics,  to  defend  their  territories  against  the  Persians.  (2.)  In 
this  manner  the  Macedonian  king  was  able  to  exert  a  commanding 
influence  in  Grecian  affairs. 

VII. — (1.)  He  estabhshed  a  body-guard,  composed  of  members 
of  tiie  Macedonian  nobility,  and  organized  a  squadron  of  horse  sol- 
diers, from  warriors  of  Thrace,  a  conquered  country.  (2.)  After 
his  death,  the  government  of  Macedon  descended  to  his  son,  Alex- 
ander, afterward  called  "  the  Great." 

VIII. — (1.)  Alexander  consolidated  all  the  states  under  his  con- 
trol into  a  mihtary  monarchy.  (2.)  He  placed  Macedonian  nobles 
in  chief  places  of  trust  and  authority.  (3.)  He  collected  a  numer- 
ous and  well-disciplined  army,  and  prepared  to  make  war  against 
other  countries. 

IX. — (1.)  Alexander  subjected  Greece  to  his  authority,  and  de- 
stroyed the  Phoenician  city  of  Tyre.  (2.)  He  conquered  the 
Egyptians  and  Persians,  and  led  a  powerful  army  against  Northern 
India.  (3.)  Wherever  he  carried  his  arms,  he  was  victorious,  and 
placed  Macedonian  governors  to  rule  over  subject  countries. 

V. — (1.)  What  did  Philip  accomplish?     (2.)  What  else  did  he  achieve  ? 

VI. — (1.)  To  what  station  was  Philip  chosen  by  the  Grecian  states?  (2.) 
What  was  the  consequence  ? 

Vn.— (1.)  What  new  forces  did  Philip  organize?  (2.)  Who  succeeded 
Philip  as  king  of  Macedon  ? 

VIIL— (1.)  What  did  Alexander  do?  (2.)  How  did  he  govern  them? 
(3.)  What  did  he  collect? 

IX. — (1.)  What  were  Alexander's  first  conquests?  (2.)  What  next  did  he 
do  ?     (3.)  Whai  was  his  success  ? 


The  Roman  Empire.  197 

X. — (1.)  Alexander  established  his  seat  of  empire  at  Babylon, 
and  adopted  the  ancient  costume  and  luxurious  habits  of  Assyrian 
kings.  (2.)  He  died  at  the  height  of  power,  and  Macedonian  des- 
potism became  broken  int@  fragments.  (3.)  Governors  and  gene- 
rals of  the  Conqueror  divided  the  different  provinces  among  them- 
selves. 

XI. — (1.)  In  the  space  of  a  single  lifetime,  the  Macedonian  state 
arose  from  a  small  union  of  pastoral  tribes,  to  be  a  great  despotic 
power.  (2.)  It  controlled  mighty  armies,  and  overthrew  ancient 
dynasties.  (3.)  In  the  lapse  of  another  generation,  all  its  posses- 
sions were  lost,  (4.)  Thirty  years  after  Alexander's  death,  not  cue 
of  his  kindred  or  family  remained  upon  the  earth. 

XII. — (1.)  Macedon  remained  chief  among  Grecian  states,  and 
sought  to  deprive  various  republics  of  the  remnant  of  freedom 
which  they  retained.  (2.)  This  brought  the  Macedonians  into  con- 
flict with  a  superior  power,  and  their  state  was  soon  after  made 
a  Roman  province. 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE      ROMAN      EMPIRE 


I. — (1.)  The  appointment  of  Octavius  Caesar  as  first  magistrate 
of  the  Roman  state,  during  life,  ended  the  republican  form  of 
government  in  Rome.  (2.)  Supreme  power  was  yielded  by  senate 
and  people  into  the  hands  of  a  single  individual. 

X. — (1.)  Where  did  Alexander  e.itahlish  his  seat  ol' goveriuiieiit?  {'>.)  What 
took  place  ?     (3.)    How  was  the  Macedonian  empire  divided  ? 

XI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Macedonian  state?  (2.)  What  did  it  accom- 
plish as  such?  (3.)  What  speedily  followed?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  Alexan- 
der's family  ? 

XII. — (1.)  What  did  Macedon  remain,  and  what  attempt  ?  (2.)  What  was 
he  result  of  tiie  attempt? 

I — (1.)  How  was  the  Roman  republic  ended?  (2.)  What  was  done  by  this 
appointment  ? 


198  History  of  Governments. 

II. — (1.)  Octavius  was  declared  consul  forever,  and,  by  decree  of 
the  senate,  his  person  was  rendered  sacred  from  approach.  (2.)  The 
titles  of  Imperator  and  Augustus  were  conferred  on  hira,  and  he  was 
made  pontifex  maximus,  or  high -priest.  (3.)  He  was  granted  the 
authority  of  censor,  and  clothed  with  dictatorial  privileges  and 
power. 

III. — (1.)  Octavius  endeavored  to  avoid  the  appearance  of 
wielding  usurped  power,  by  accepting  his  offices  and  titles  for  a 
terra  of  years,  renewed  constantly.  (2.)  At  his  death,  the  imperial 
power  passed  quietly  to  his  son. 

IV. — (1.)  The  senate  remained  a  permanent  body  in  the  state, 
but  its  influence  departed  with  the  popular  independence,  from 
which  it  was  originally  created.  (2.)  A  secret  council  of  favorites, 
selected  by  the  emperor,  determined  all  principal  matters  of  public 
importance. 

V. — (1.)  The  office  of  City  Frcefed,  or  lieutenant  of  the  city, 
was  placed  under  control  of  the  emperor.  (2.)  Another  office  was 
made  permanent,  having  charge  of  provisions  in  the  city.  (3.)  Many 
new  places  were  created  by  the  emperor,  to  reward  his  friends  and 
dependents. 

VI. — (1.)  The  militia  of  the  Roman  commonwealth  gave  place 
to  standing  armies,  composed  of  foreigners,  hired  to  fight  the 
emperor's  battles.  (2.)  All  military  officers  were  appointed  by 
the  emperor.  (3.)  Tlje  soil  formerly  owned  by  the  state,  and  all 
new  territories  seized  from  subject  nations,  were  declared  crown- 
lands. 

Et. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Octavius?  (2.)  What  titles  and  office  were  given 
to  him?     (3.)  What  authority  was  yielded  to  him  ? 

ni. — (1.)  What  did  Octavius  endeavor  to  avoid?  (2.)  What  took  place  at 
his  death  ? 

rV. — (1.)  What  became  of  the  Roman  senate?  (2.)  What  other  body  was 
created  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  office  was  placed  under  the  emperor's  control?  (2.)  What 
other  office  was  made  permanent?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  more  offices  ? 

VI. — (1  )  To  what  did  the  Roman  militia  give  place  ?  (2  )  Who  appointed 
military  officers  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  soil? 


The  Roman  Empire.  igg 

VII. — (1.)  Taxes  and  revenues  from  the  provinces,  and  spoils 
of  war,  were  paid  into  the  imperial  treasury.  (2.)  The  emperor 
controlled  finances,  armies,  and  most  of  the  civil  offices  of  state. 

VIII. — (1.)  Assemblies  of  the  people  continued  to  be  held,  but 
their  ancient  power  was  wholly  transferred  to  the  senate.  (2.)  The 
senate  remained  the  highest  tribunal  of  state,  but  was  always  under 
control  of  the  emperor.  (3.)  It  became  the  instrument  of  tyranny 
whenever  a  despotic  sovereign  was  at  the  head  of  government. 

IX. — (1.)  The  history  of  Rome,  after  the  fall  of  her  republican 
system,  is  a  history  of  arbitrary  rule,  exercised  by  magistrates,  and 
abject  submission  on  the  part  of  the  people.  (2.)  The  ancient 
authority  of  a  senate  dwindled  to  mere  ceremony.  (3.)  The  eiL- 
perors  relied  on  mercenary  armies  to  support  their  tyranny.  (4.) 
The  soldiery  of  Rome  grew  powerful  enough  to  raise  their  generals 
to  the  throne  or  depose  them,  whenever  they  pleased. 

X. — (1.)  The  Roman  state  became  a  military  despotism,  and  the 
seat  of  government  was  removed  from  Italy  to  Byzantium,  on  the 
Black  Sea.  (2.)  A  new  division  of  the  empire  was  made,  with  four 
prefectures.  (3.)  Each  prefecture  was  separated  into  dioceses,  and 
the  dioceses  subdivided  into  provinces. 

XI. — (1.)  An  officer  called  a  praetorian  prefect  was  appointed  over 
each  prefecture.  (2.)  Under  this  officer  were  placed  pro-consuls 
and  presidents,  over  dioceses  and  provinces.  (3.)  These  various 
governors  were  responsible  to  the  emperor  only. 

XII. — (1.)  The  emperor  constantly  created  new  offices,  to  favor 
his  high  servants  or  court.     (2.)  A  grand-chamberlain  was  chief  of 

Vn. — (1.)  What  became  of  revenues  ?     (2  )  What  did  the  emperor  control? 

Vm.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  assemblies  of  the  people?  (2.)  What  did  the 
senate  remain  ?     (3.)  What  did  it  become? 

IX.— (1.)  What  is  the  history  of  imperial  Rome?  (2.)  What  became  of  the 
senate's  authority ?  (3.)  On  what  did  the  emperors  rely?  (4)  What  is  said 
of  the  soldiery  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  afterward  took  place?  (2.)  What  new  division  was  made? 
(3.)  IIow  were  the  prefectures  divided? 

XI. — (1.)  What  was  placed  over  each  prefecture?  (2.)  Who  were  his 
subordinates  ?     (3.)  To  whom  were  these  responsible  ? 

XII. — (1.)  What  did  the  enperor  constantly  do?     (2.)  What  is  sa\d  o'    i 


200  History  of  Governments. 

the  sovei  sign's  household  officers.  (3.)  A  chancellor,  or  minister 
of  the  interior,  had  charge  of  tribunals  and  civil  offices  within  the 
empire.  (4.)  A  grand-treasurer,  or  minister  of  finance,  was  in- 
trusted with  the  collection  and  custody  of  public  revenues.  (5.)  A 
qujBstor,  or  advocate^eneral,  was  the  emperor's  minister  of  justice 
and  secretary.  (6.)  A  privy-treasnrer  was  an  officer  who  provided 
for  the  sovereign's  personal  expenses,  (t.)  Two  commanders  had 
charge  of  the  emperor's  guards  ;  and  several  other  military  cliiefs 
were  known  as  masters  of  the  infantry,  masters  of  the  horse,  comites, 
or  counts,  and  duces,  or  dukes.  (8.)  At  the  head  of  the  army  was 
a  general,  responsible  to  the  emperor. 

XIII. — (1.)  All  inhabited  provinces,  under  imperial  dominion, 
were  subject  to  severe  taxation.  (2.)  Taxes  were  levied  on  all 
wlio  owned  land  or  property  in  cities,  and  on  articles  of  commerce, 
public  highways,  water-works,  and  every  kind  of  improvement. 

XIV. — (1  )  Roman  government  became  corrupted  in  all  de- 
partments of  its  administration.  (2.)  The  mass  of  the  people  sank 
into  ignorance  and  hopeless  servitude.  (3.)  Ambitious  military 
leaders  arose  everywhere,  and  foreign  invaders  swarmed  upon  the 
rich  provinces  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  East.  (4.)  At  length,  the 
empire  fell  asunder,  and  two  absolute  sovereigns  directed  its  sway, 
(5.)  One  of  these  reigned  at  Rome,  the  other  at  Constantinople. 
(6.)  The  first,  or  western  empire,  was  soon  overrun  by  the  Ostro- 
gotlis,  and  became  the  empire  of  Charlemagne. 

XV". — (1.)  The  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  was  a  natural  con- 
sequence of  despotic  authority  usurped  by  government,  and  slavish 

grand  chamberlain?  (3.)  What  of  a  chancellor?  (4.)  What  of  a  grand 
treasurer?  (5.)  What  of  a  quaestor  ?  (6.)  Wliat  of  a  privy-treasurer?  (7.) 
What  of  two  commanders?     (8.)   Who  was  at  the  head  of  the  army  ? 

XIII. — (1.)  To  what  were  provinces  subject?  (2.)  What  taxes  were 
levied  ? 

XrV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Roman  government?  (2.)  What  of  the  people? 
(3.)  What  of  ambitious  leaders  ?  (4.)  What  took  place  at  length  ?  (5.)  Where 
did  the  two  emperors  fix  their  courts  ?  (6.)  What  befell  the  first,  or  western 
empire? 

XV. — (1.)  Of  what  was  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  the  consequence? 


The  Roman  Empire.  20l 

submission  to  it  by  the  people.  (2.)  Tiie  city  of  Rome  became 
crowded  by  an  impoverished  population,  dependent  upon  the  pos- 
sessors of  wealth.  (3.)  Such  a  population  was  ready  to  follow  any 
ambitious  leader  who  flattered  and  fed  its  needy  members.  (4.)  It 
furnished  tlie  tools  and  assistants  of  the  first  Caesars,  in  their  at- 
tempts to  overthrow  liberty.  (5.)  The  lower  classes  became  sol- 
diers and  guards  of  royalty,  until  the  employment  of  foreign  mer- 
cenaries reduced  them  to  military  slavery. 

XVI. — (1.)  A  proud  and  luxurious  aristocracy,  an  ignorant  and 
superstitious  class  of  voters,  and  the  jealousies  of  rival  families, 
were  the  first  disorders  of  the  Roman  state.  (2.)  These  were  suc- 
ceeded by  treacherous  combinations  of  magistrates  and  senators, 
the  quarrels  of  victorious  generals,  and  seizure  of  all  power  by  a 
few  ambitious  chiefs.  (3.)  The  senate  became  an  instrument  of 
tyranny,  standing  armies  were  hired  to  support  government,  and 
the  people  were  looked  upon  as  only  a  little  higher  than  the  slaves, 
who  swarmed  everywhere. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  Roman  state  rose  and  flourished  under  free 
institutions  and  by  the  temperance  of  its  people.  (2.)  It  tyrannized 
over  the  world,  and  afterward  fell  into  ruins,  by  reason  of  despotic 
government  and  extremes  of  wealth  and  poverty  in  the  com- 
munity. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  name  of  a  Roman  empire  continued  to  exist 
in  the  East  during  several  centuries  after  the  overthrow  of  Rome 
herself  (2.)  The  government  then  became  a  half  civilized  despotism, 
with  an  irresponsible  head.  (3.)  So  wicked  grew  the  tyrants,  that 
»ne,  it  is  said,  ordered  a  plate  of  human  noses  to  be  brought  to  his 

(2.)  What  is  said  of  the  city  of  Rome  ?  (3.)  What  was  such  a  population 
ready  to  do  ?  (4.)  What  did  it  I'urnish  ?  (5.)  What  became  of  the  lower 
classes? 

XVI. — (1.)  What  were  the  first  disorders  of  the  Roman  state?  (2.)  By 
what  were  they  succeeded?     (3.)   What  was  the  consequence  ? 

XVII. — (1.)  How  did  the  Roman  state  flourish  ?  (2.)  What  was  its  subse- 
quent career  ? 

XVin.— (1.)  What  continued  to  exist?  (2.)  What  did  the  government  then 
))ecome  ?     (3.)   What  is  related  of  its  tyrants  ? 

9* 


202  History  of  Governments. 

table,  and  another  tortured  his  officers,  by  suspending  them,  heads 
downward,  over  slow  fires. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  show  of  au  imperial  system  was  kept  up  by 
eastern  emperors  till  the  descendants  of  Arabian  races  succeeded  in 
overrunning  all  the  ancient  countries  of  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Chaldea, 
Egypt,  Ethiopia,  Persia  and  Greece.  (2.)  From  that  period  to  the 
present,  all  those  countries  have  been  governed  by  Mohammedan 
monarchical  systems.  (3.)  Most  of  the  territory  successively  ruled 
by  Assyrian,  Medean,  Persian,  Macedonian  and  Roman  despotism, 
is  now  possessed  by  semi-barbarous  nations  and  wild  tribes. 


XIX.— (1.)  To  what  period  was  the  show  of  empire  kept  up?  (2.)  What 
has  since  been  the  government  of  those  countries?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  the 
seats  of  ancient  despotisms  ? 


E-A.RLY 

LIMITED    xVLONAIlCHIES, 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE     GOTHIC      NATIONS. 

I. — (1.)  While  the  communities  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  grow- 
ing from  small  settlements  of  families  to  be  powerful  states,  thou- 
sands of  nomad  tribes  wandered  through  northern  countries  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  (2.)  They  subsisted  in  the  usual  manner  of  rude 
people,  by  the  chase,  by  fishing,  or  precarious  tillage  of  laud. 

II. —  (1.)  These  wild  tribes  increased  and  multiplied  by  degrees 
into  great  armies  of  people.  (2.)  The  countries  which  they  inhabited 
Avere  crowded  with  their  numbers.  (3.)  It  became  necessary  that 
new  abodes  should  be  found,  and  many  thousands,  in  families  and 
tribes,  began  to  migrate  southwardly. 

III. — (1.)  From  northern  Asia  multitudes  of  nomads  descended, 
as  emigrants,  toward  Europe.  (2.)  They  resembled  the  Tartar  tribes 
that  now  rove  in  that  region.  (3.)  Tbese  people  passed  into  Europe 
over  chains  of  mountains  and  desert  plains. 

IV. — (1.)  Many  multitudes  wandered  in  communities,  like  Arabs, 
with  herds  of  cattle.     (2.)   Others  emigrated  in  rude  wagons,  and 

I. — (1)  What  is  said  concerning  different  communities?  (2.)  How  did  these 
wandering  people  subsist? 

n.— (1.)  What  was  the  progress  of  these  tribes?  (2.)  What  i.<**  said  of  theii 
dwelling-places?     (2.)  What  became  necessary  ? 

in. — (1.)  What  emigrations  took  place?  (2.)  What  did  these  people  re- 
>iemble?     (3.)  Where  did  they  go? 

IV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  some  multitudes?     (2.)  What  concerning  others 

208 


204  History  of  Governments. 

settled  wherever  they  found  good  lands  for  pasture  or  cultivatior. 
(3.)  These  wandering  nations  were  courageous  in  spirit,  and  accus- 
tomed to  hardships  and  dangers. 

V. — (1.)  The  cause  of  emigration  from  northern  countries  was  a 
desire  to  better  their  condition.  (2.)  They  expected  to  find  a  more 
temperate  climate,  abundance  of  fruits,  and  room  for  all  their  num- 
bers, without  one  tribe  or  individual  interfering  with  another. 
(3.)  They  journeyed  under  their  headmen,  as  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed to  wander,  in  their  nomadic  way  of  life,  during  ages. 

VI. — (1.)  The  emigrant  nations  who  first  approached  civilized 
southern  countries,  were  generally  called  barbarians.  (2.)  They 
were  considered  to  l>e  collections  of  all  Asiatic  tribes.  (3.)  At 
later  periods  they  were  distinguished  as  Germans  and  Gauls,  and  as 
Ostro-Goths  and  Visi-Goths.  (4.)  The  last  two  names  signified 
Goths  from  the  east  and  Goths  from  the  west.  (5.)  Still  later  emi- 
grants became  known  as  Huns,  Scandinavians,  and  Northmen. 

VII. — (1.)  These  various  wandering  nations  moved  onward,  till 
they  overran  all  the  territories  governed  by  Roman  power.  (2.) 
They  found  it  easy  to  conquer  luxurious  cities  and  towns  of  Greece 
and  Italy.  (3.)  After  the  fall  of  Rome,  they  established  themselves 
in  the  countries  now  known  as  Spain,  France,  and  Germany. 

VIII. — (1.)  These  barbarian  immigrations  comprised  hundreds 
of  tribes  distinguished  by  different  names.  (2.)  Among  them  were 
Franks,  Burgundians,  and  Lombards,  who  afterward  settled  in 
France  and  Italy.     (3.)  Others,  called  Angles  and  Saxons,  passed 


(3.)  What  was  the  character  of  these  wandering  nations  ? 

v.— (1.)  What  was  the  cause  of  emigration?  (2.)  What  did  the  emigrants 
expect?     (3.)  Under  whose  direction  did  they  proceed? 

VI.— (1.)  What  were  the  emigrant  nations  called?  (2.)  What  were  they 
considered  to  be?  (3.)  How  were  they  distinguished  at  later  periods? 
(4.)  What  4id  the  last  two  names  signify?  (5).  How  were  later  barbarians 
called? 

Vn.— (1.)  What  did  the  wandering  nations  do  ?  (2.)  What  did  they  find 
easy  ?     (3.)  Where  did  they  establish  themselves  ? 

Vm.— (1.)  What  did  the  immigrations  comprise?  (2.)  What  were  some  of 
these?     (.3.)  What  is  said  of  others? 


The  Gothic  Nations.  205 

over  to  Britain,  and  the  Huns,  Pannonians,  AUemanni,  and  Sarnaa- 
tiaiis,  fonnded  different  states  of  Germany. 

IX. — (1.)  The  mode  of  government  most  common,  among  the 
nations  called  Ostro-Goths,  was  that  of  an  elective  monarchy. 
(2.)  The  chiefs  or  headmen  of  various  tribes  constituted  au  aris- 
tocracy. (3.)  When  the  tribes  were  united  under  one  leader,  for  a 
war,  or  for  an  eraigi-ation,  this  aristocracy  elected  a  king. 

X. — (1.)  An  Ostro-Gothic  army,  composed  of  numerous  tribes, 
and  their  headmen,  under  a  common  sovereign,  formed  a  federal 
combination.  (2.)  When  such  an  army  made  a  permanent  settle- 
ment, its  leading  tribe  usually  gave  name  to  the  entire  nation. 

XI. — (1.)  The  chief  men,  or  leaders  of  tribes,  became  lords  or 
landholders  of  any  country  that  was  conquered  and  settled  by  an 
emigrant  army.  (2.)  They  selected  a  king  from  the  chief  family 
of  a  leading  tribe. 

XII. — (1.)  When  a  sovereign  desired  to  name  his  successor,  it 
could  only  be  with  consent  of  the  leaders  of  tribes.  (2.)  When  he 
died  without  indicating  a  preference,  some  member  of  his  family  was 
chosen,  or,  if  there  were  none  left,  a  king  was  taken  from  another 
head  family. 

XIII. — (1.)  After  a  Gothic  nation  settled  in  new  possessions,  the 
king  ajipointed  headmen  of  tribes  to  be  officers  of  government,  with 
the  title  of  dukes  and  counts.  (2.)  Dukes  were  highest  military 
commanders,  and  counts  were  the  principal  civil  dignitaries.  (3.)  A 
duke  was  general  of  a  province  in  which  he  was  placed,  and  exer- 

IX.— (1.)  What  mode  of  government  had  the  Gothic  tribes?  (2.)  What 
constituted  an  aristocracy  ?  (3.)  Wliat  did  this  aristocracy  do  on  certain 
occasions  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  did  an  Ostro-Gothic  army  form  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  its 
settlement  ? 

XI. — (1.)  Who  became  lords  of  a  conquered  country  ?  (2.)  From  what  class 
was  the  king  selected  ? 

Xn.— (1.)  How  could  a  king  appoint  his  successor?  (2.)  What  occurred 
when  he  did  not  appoint  ? 

Xin. — (1.)  What  took  place  when  a  Gothic  army  settled  ?  (2.)  What  were 
dukes   and  counts?      (3.)  What  power  was   exercised  by  the  Gothic  duke? 


2o6  History  of  Governments. 

cised  supreme  power,  under  the  orders  of  his  sovereign.  (4.)  A 
count  was  chief  judge,  with  power  to  appoint  and  suspend  inferior 
iud"-es   and  review  all  decisions  made  by  them. 

XIV.— (1.)  Counts  named  subordinate  officers,  or  lieutenants,  to 
preside  in  their  absence  over  a  town  or  province,  with  limited 
powers.  (2.)  A  count  could  call  out  the  militia  or  citizens  of  his 
district  on  occasions  of  importance. 

XV.— (1.)  Ostro-Gothic  monarchs  exercised  absolute  sovereignty 
over  their  subjects,  though  their  proceedings  were  influenced  by  na- 
tional usages.  (2.)  The  whole  body  of  dukes  and  counts  was 
sometimes  called  together,  to  represent  their  tribes  in  council.  (3.) 
All  inferior  officers  were  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  through  his 
dukes  and  counts.  (4.)  The  king  issued  orders  to  the  army,  and 
imposed  taxes  at  his  pleasure. 


CHAPTER   II. 

NORMANS     AND     SAXONS. 

I. — (1.)  Inhabitants  of  northern  Europe,  who  emigrated  toward 
civilized  countries  after  the  destruction  of  Roman  empire,  were 
known  as  Scandinavians,  or  Northmen.  (2.)  They  originally  wan- 
dered among  Gothic  hordes,  in  those  great  wildernesses  that  now 
compose  parts  of  the  Russian  empire. 

II. — (1.)  Scandinavian  invaders  began  to  be  powerful  in  Europe 
while  the  Franks  were  organizing  kingdoms  in  Gaul  and  Germany. 


(4.)  What  authority  had  a  count  ? 

XIV. —  (1.)  What  subordinate  officers  were  named?  (2)  What  could  a 
count  do  ? 

XV.— (1.)  What  authority  had  Ostro-Gothic  iviugs?  (2.)  What  great  coun- 
cil was  sometimes  called?  (3.)  How  were  inferior  officers  appointed?  (4.) 
What  did  the  king  do? 

I. — (1.)  What  were  emigrants  from  northern  Europe  called?  (2.)  Where 
did  they  originally  wander  ? 

IL — (1.)  At  what  period  did  Scandinavian  immigrants  become  powerful? 


Normans  and  Saxons.  207 

(2.)  These  invaders  came  iu  ships,  which  they  had  navigated  through 
northern  seas.  (3.)  They  ravaged  coasts  and  plundered  cities 
wherever  they  landed. 

Ill, — (1.)  The  Normans,  as  those  who  came  in  ships  were  called, 
took  possession  of  a  large  portion  of  Frankish  territory.  (2.)  Their 
leader  became  a  duke  of  the  conquered  district,  and  it  was  after- 
ward called  Normandy.  (3.)  Like  other  princes  of  France,  the 
dukes  of  Normandy  acknowledged  the  kings  of  France  as  sovereigns, 
but  governed  their  own  territories  in  what  manner  they  pleased. 

IV". — (1.)  Another  Scandinavian  nation  settled  near  the  bordeis 
of  France,  in  the  German  country.  (2.)  This  nation  was  known 
under  the  name  of  Saxons,  and  consisted  of  several  combined  tribes, 
each  governed  by  its  chief.  (3.)  From  these  chiefs,  or  headmen, 
the  people  elected  their  king,  in  the  manner  of  other  Gothic 
nations. 

V. — (1.)  Saxon  kings  were  considered  only  as  first  magistrates, 
whose  authority  depended  upon  their  personal  ability  to  control 
other  chiefs.  (2.)  Saxon  laws  were  made  in  an  assembly  of  the 
elders,  or  wise  men,  of  each  tribe. 

VI. — (1.)  The  common  people  of  Saxon  tribes  did  not  possess 
the  law-making  power.  (2.)  The  headmen  formed  an  aristocracy, 
for  purposes  of  government.  (3.)  All  officials  were  appointed  by 
the  king  from  this  aristocracy. 

VII. — (1.)  Saxons  were  divided  into  three  ranks,  like  other 
Germanic  nations.  (2.)  The  first  rank  was  composed  of  nobles, 
who  were  proprietors  of  nearly  all  the  lands.     (3.)  The  second  class 

(2.)  How  did  these  invaders  come?     (3.)  What  did  they  do? 

ni. — (1.)  What  did  the  Normans  do?  (2.)  What  did  tlieir  leader  become? 
(3.)  What  is  said  concerning  dukes  of  Normandy? 

IV. — (1.)  Where  did  another  Scandinavian  nation  settle  ?  (2.)  What  is  sait 
of  this  nation?     (3.)   IIow  was  a  Saxon  Iving  chosen? 

V. — (1.)  How  were  Saxon  liings  regarded?  (2.)  How  were  Saxon  lawj 
made? 

VI. —  (1.)  Who  did  not  possess  legislative  power?  (2.)  Who  formed  an 
aristocracy  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  officials  ? 

VI. — (1.)  How  were  Saxons  divided?  (2.)  Of  whom  was  the  first  rank 
composed?      ^3.)  Of  what  did  the   second   class  of   Saxon   people   consist? 


2o8  History  ol  Governments. 

consisted  oi freemen,  comprising  soldiers,  sailors,  merchants,  and  the 
professions.  (4.)  The  rest  of  the  people  were  classed  as  slaves. 
(5.)  The  second  rank  could  be  admitted  among  the  first  iu  certain 
cases. 

VIII. — (1.)  Slaves  were  deprived  of  all  political  or  socia.  rights. 
(2.)  They  were  separated  into  household  servants  and  bond-slaves, 
or  serfs.  (3.)  Some  orders  of  population  in  Russia,  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  occupy  a  similar  position  to  tiiat  of  the  ancient  Saxon 
serfs. 

IX. — (1.)  There  were  several  courts  of  justice  and  degrees  of 
magistracy  known  among  the  Saxons.  (2.)  Judges  were  always 
selected  from  the  proprietors  of  land. 

X. — (i.)  Saxons  migrated  from  their  settlements  in  Germany, 
and  took  possession  of  the  British  Islands.  (2.)  There  they  mingled 
with  tribes  who  were  known  as  Britons  and  Angles,  and  established 
a  number  of  small  separate  kingdoms. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  FRAXKISH  OR  FRENCH  MOXARCHY. 

I. — (1.)  When  later  barbarian  immigrations  pressed  down  toward 
Italy  and  Greece,  they  invaded  tribes  and  communities  that  were 
settled  in  the  path  of  their  migration.  (2.)  Many  of  these  tribes 
joined  their  numbers,  under  the  name  of  Franks,  or  freemm,  and 
marched  upon  the  Roman  provinces  in  Gaul. 

(4.)  How  were  the  remainder  classed?     (5.)  What  is  said  of  the  second  rank  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  What  was  the  condition  of  slaves?  (2.)  How  were  they  sepa- 
rated? (3.)  What  persons  at  the  present  day  resemble  ancient  Saxon  slaves 
in  condition  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  courts  of  justice?  (2.)  What  class 
furnished  magistrates  ? 

X.— (1.)  What  new  possessions  did  Saxons  gain?  (2.)  What  did  they  do  in 
the  British  Islands  ? 

I. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  later  barbarian  invasions?  (2.)  What  did  maaj  ti 
these  tribes  do  ? 


The  Fraiikish  or  French   Monarchy.  209 

II. (1.)  The  Fra!)kish  tribes  were  democratic  in  their  separate 

organization.  (2.)  Tliey  elected  their  kings  by  votes  of  all  the 
people,  given  through  their  headmen.  (3.)  When  they  took  pos- 
session of  Gaul,  the  headmen  received  grants  of  land  from  the  mon- 
arch, and  were  made  liis  chief  officers  and  councillors. 

III.— (1.)  Frankish  kings  acknowledged  the  right  of  their 
great  officers  to  a  voice  in  all  matters  of  war  and  government. 
(2.)  The  great  officers  met  with  their  people  iu  the  camp,  or  public 
assembly,  and  deliberated  on  public  business. 

rv. — (1.)  Prankish  kings  had  no  power  to  make  laws,  and  could 
only  be  judges  in  certain  cases.  (2.)  The  people,  in  general  assem- 
bly, once  a  year,  passed  laws  to  govern  the  nation  and  individuals. 
(3.)  In  these  meetings,  the  king  could  cast  but  a  single  vote,  like 
a  common  soldier.  (4.)  In  time  of  actual  war,  the  king  was  abso- 
lute, as  general,  but  possessed  only  limited  civil  authority. 

V. — (1.)  The  emigrating  Franks  were  governed  by  military  dis- 
cipline, but  each  individual  felt  himself  equal  to  another  in  rank. 
(2.)  After  their  settlement  in  Gaul,  each  tribe  retained  its  peculiar 
laws  and  customs.  (3.)  The  privilege  of  meeting  in  public  assem- 
blies was  generally  extended  to  the  conquered  native  inhabitants. 
(4.)  Thus,  the  founders  of  the  French  nation  constituted  a  simple 
democratic  state 

VI.— (1.)  When  leaders,  and  other  officers  of  Frankish  tribes, 
fixed  themselves  in  Gaul,  they  drove  out  or  destroyed  many  Gallic 

n. — (1.)  What  political  character  had  the  Frankish  tribes  ?  (2.)  How  did 
they  elect  their  kings?  (3.)  What  occurred  when  they  took  possession  of 
Gaul? 

HE. — (1.)  What  did  Frankish  kings  acknowledge?  (2.)  What  did  the  great 
officers  do  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  kingly  power?  (2.)  How  were  laws  made? 
(3.)  What  privilege  had  the  king  iu  those  assembUcs  ?  (4.)  When  was  the 
king  most  powerful  ? 

V. — (1.)  How  were  the  emigrating  Franks  governed?  (2.)  What  took  place 
after  their  settlement?  (3.)  What  privilege  was  extended  to  others*  (4.) 
What  is  remarked  concerning  the  Franks  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  did  the  Frankish  leaders  do,  after  permaneut  settlement? 


210  History  of  Governments. 

chiefs  who  resisted  their  arms.  (2.)  Non-resisting  possessors  of 
land  were  left  iu  occupation,  on  condition  of  submitting  to  the 
invaders. 

VII.— (1.)  In  tliis  way  the  soil  of  Gaul  remained  parcelled  out 
in  large  tracts  among  Frankish  and  Gallic  principal  men.  (2.)  Each 
of  these  chiefs  supported  a  number  of  followers  on  his  domain. 
(3.)   Smaller  estates  were  possessed  by  inferior  persons. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  insecurity  of  life  which  arose  from  constant 
warfare  caused  owners  of  smaller  estates  to  place  themselves  under 
protection  of  larger  proprietors.  (2.)  A  chief  so  selected,  as  pro- 
tector, was  obliged  to  keep  a  large  force  of  soldiers  under  his  orders. 
(3.)  The  expense  of  this  force  was  defrayed  by  contributions  of 
money  and  provisions,  made  by  the  smaller  landlords. 

IX. — (1.)  While  high  officials,  such  as  dukes  and  counts,  were 
generals  and  chief  judges,  the  larger  landholders  acted  as  inferior 
judges  and  subordinate  commanders.  (2.)  In  time  of  danger,  the 
dukes  summoned  all  landed  proprietors  to  assemble  their  soldiers 
and  servants.  (3.)  In  seasons  of  quiet,  large  land  proprietors  exer- 
cised the  duties  of  magistrates,  each  one  settling  the  disputes  of  his 
tenants  and  retainers. 

X. — (1.)  Large  landholders  became  known  as  seigneurs,  or  lords, 
gentlemen,  and  esquires.  (2.)  Seigneurs  were  highest,  under  the 
dukes,  counts,  and  royal  family.  (3.)  Some  of  them  held  their  lands 
by  grant  from  the  king,  and  some  by  favor  of  the  dukes  and  counts. 
(4.)  Large  landholders,  or  seigneurs,  often  made  small  grants  of 
soil  to  gentlemen  and  esquires,  on  certain  conditions  of  service. 
(5.)  The  rest  of  the  people  cultivated  land  as  tenants  or  vassals, 

(2.)  How  were  non-resistants  treated  ? 

VII.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  soil  of  Gaul  ?  (2.)  What  did  each  chief  do  ? 
(3.)  Who  possessed  smaller  estates? 

Vni. — (1.)  What  did  insecurity  of  life  cause?  (2.)  What  was  a  protecting 
chief  obliged  to  do  ?     (3.)  How  was  the  expense  defrayed  ? 

IX. — (1.)  Who  were  magistrates  and  judges?  (2.)  What  was  done  iu  tinze 
of  danger  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  about  seasons  of  quiet  ? 

X. — (1.)  How  did  larger  landholders  become  known?  (2.)  Who  were  the 
highest?  (3.)  How  did  they  hold  their  lands?  (4.)  What  did  seigneurs  often 
do?     (5.)  What  is  said  of  the  rest  of  the  population? 


The  Frankish  or  French  Monarchy.  211 

and  were  obliged  to  follow  their  superiors  to  war,  in  consideration 
of  their  protection. 

XI. — (1.)  The  first  regular  organization  of  government  and  laws 
among  the  Franks,  was  made  by  their  monarch  Charlemagne,  or 
Charles  the  Great.  (2.)  This  king  became  very  powerful,  and  ex- 
tended the  Frankish  dominions  throughout  Gaul,  Italy  and  the 
German  territory. 

XII. — (1.)  Charlemagne  established  a  general  assembly,  or  coun- 
cil, to  meet  twice  in  every  year.  (2.)  This  council  was  called  a 
parliament,  and  comprised,  firstly,  the  principal  nobles  and  land- 
holders of  the  kingdom  ;  secondly,  the  highest  order  of  priests, 
called  bishops  and  alibots ;  and  thirdly,  twelve  representatives  of 
the  pe(jple  at  large,  from  each  district  governed  by  a  count.  (3.) 
The  three  classes  were  divided  into  three  bodies,  or  chambers,  at 
their  place  of  meeting.  (4.)  Large  land  proprietors  constituted  a 
Chamber  of  Nobles  ;  religious  lords  were  called  the  Chamber  of 
Bishops  ;  delegates  of  the  people  formed  a  Third  Estate,  or  Chamber 
of  the  People. 

XIII. — (1.)  Charlemagne  provided  for  civil  government  in  his 
provinces,  in  addition  to  the  military  command  exercised  by  dukes 
or  c-enerals.  (2.)  He  appointed  a  number  of  commissioners,  or 
royal  judges,  whose  duty  it  was  to  visit  every  province  once  in  four 
months,  and,  at  each  visit,  hold  a  court  of  justice. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  commissioners,  or  I'oyal  judges,  were  commanded 
to  hear  the  causes  of  the  poor  first.  (2.)  Next,  they  were  to  decide 
in  matters  concerning  the  king.  (3.)  Thirdly,  they  were  to  settle 
questions  relating  to  the  clergy.  (4.)  Fourthly,  they  were  to  listen 
to  complaints  of  the  people  at  large. 


XL— (1.)  When  were  the  Franks  first  regularly  organized  ?  (i.)  What  is 
said  of  Charlemagne  ? 

XII.— (1.)  What  did  Charlemagne  establish?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  this 
council?  (:5.)  How  were  the  delegates  of  these  three  classes  divided?  (4.) 
What  did  each  class  constitute  ? 

XIIL— (1.)  For  what  did  Charlemagne  provide?  (2.)  What  did  he  ap- 
point ? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  was  the  first  duty  of  royal  commissioners  ?  (2.)  What  the 
second?     (8  )  Wiiat  the  third?     (4  )  What  the  fourth  ? 


212  History  of  Governments. 

XV. — (1.)  The  commissioners  summoned  a  meeting  once  in  every 
year,  of  all  the  bishops,  abbots,  nobles  and  deputies  of  every  pro- 
vince governed  by  a  count.  (2.)  At  these  meetings  they  examined, 
as  chief  judges,  into  all  the  aifairs  of  a  province,  and  inquired  into 
the  conduct  of  the  count  and  his  subordinate  magistrates. 

XVI. — (1.)  When  the  general  assembly,  or  parliament,  met  twice 
a  year,  the  royal  judges  made  their  report  to  the  king  and  the  three 
chambers,  or  estates.  (2.)  The  condition  of  the  whole  kingdom 
was  thus  made  known,  and  public  affairs  were  kept  in  constant  view 
of  the  people. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  dukes  of  Charlemagne's  dominions  held  the 
largest  landed  estates,  and  each  duke  was  a  military  chief  over  the 
province  wherein  his  lands  were  situated.  (2.)  When  the  monarch 
summoned  his  dukes  to  war,  they  were  obliged  to  call  out  all  the 
strength  of  their  provinces  to  perform  military  duty. 

XVIII. — (1.)  New  territories  conquered  by  the  Franks  were 
divided  into  districts,  provinces  and  townships.  (2.)  They  were 
generally  distributed  by  the  king  among  his  followers,  who  had 
done  good  service.  (3.)  The  original  inhabitants  were  not  driven 
out,  but  remained  in  occupation  of  the  soil  on  certain  terms,  after- 
ward known  as  feudal  laws. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  democratic  character  of  the  Frankish  people 
made  them,  in  a  great  measure,  independent  of  the  king.  (2.)  They 
banded  in  communities  of  towns  and  villages,  each  with  its  leading 
men  or  nobles.  (3.)  The  nobles  protected  the  people  in  occupation 
of  their  lands,  and  the  people,  in  return,  supported  the  nobles. 

XV. — (1.)  What  did  the  commissioners  summon?     (2.)  What  did  they  do 

at  the  meetings  ? 

XVI. — (1.)  When  was  a  report  made  to  government?  (2.)  What  was  the 
consequence  of  this  ? 

XVII. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Charlemagne's  dukes?  (2.)  What  was  the 
miUtary  duty  of  dukes  ? 

XVm. — (1.)  How  were  conquered  territories  divided  ?  (2.)  How  were  they 
distributed?     (3.)  What  became  of  the  original  inhabitants? 

XIX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  democratic  character?  (2.)  How  did  they 
combine?     (3.)  What  relations  existed  between  nobles  and  the  people  ? 


The   Frankish  or  French  Monarchy.  213 

XX. — (1.)  In  districts  of  couatry  where  traffic  was  profitable, 
merchants  established  towns  and  surrounded  them  with  walls.  (2.) 
Some  neighboring  chief,  either  a  duke,  count,  or  influential  noble, 
was  chosen  by  the  citizens  as  protector,  or  lord  of  the  town.  (3.) 
The  inhabitants  paid  an  annual  tax  to  him  for  his  protection,  and 
he  agreed  to  defend  them  from  aggressions  by  the  king  or  other 
chiefs. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  citizens  of  a  town  conducted  their  own  local 
affairs.  (2.)  They  chose  magistrates  from  their  principal  men,  and 
met  in  public  assemblies.  (3.)  Sometimes  a  bishop  or  abbot  was 
seigneur  of  a  city,  and  taxes  or  tribute  was  paid  to  him,  ou  the  same 
conditions  as  to  a  seigneur. 

XXII. — ^1.)  The  duke  of  a  province  was  sovereign  over  all  the 
counts  and  seigneurs  who  held  lands,  or  were  lords  of  towns  and 
villages,  in  his  territory.  (2.)  When  he  went  to  war,  these  seigneurs 
attended,  each  bringing  men  according  to  his  means,  beneath  his 
own  banner  or  pennon. 

XXIII. — (1.)  Under  early  Frankish  kings,  dukes  often  warred 
among  themselves,  and  seized  the  laud  of  inferior  lords  from  one 
another.  (2.)  Afterward,  some  dukes  became  nearly  as  strong  as 
the  king  himself,  in  followers,  lauds  and  treasures.  (3.)  Of  ihese 
were  the  Dukes  of  Normandy,  Burgundy,  Brittany,  and  other  dis- 
tricts of  country,  sometimes  embracing  several  provinces  in  one 
dukedom. 

XXIV. — (1.)  Dukes,  counts,  and  other  officers,  were  called  by 
such  names,  at  first,  only  as  officers  of  the  king.  (2.)  Afterward, 
the  titles  were  allowed  to  descend  from   fathers   to  sons,  as  marks 


XX. — (1.)  What  did  luercliauts  do  ?  (2.)  Who  was  chosen  as  their  protec- 
tor?    (3.)  How  did  the  town  people  engage  with  this  protector? 

XXI — (1.)  How  were  town  affairs  conducted?  (2.)  What  did  they  choose? 
(3.)  What  is  said  of  a  bishop  or  abbot  ? 

XXII. — (1.)  What  was  a  dulse's  authority?  (2.)  Who  followed  him  to 
war  ? 

XXIIL— (1.)  What  did  dukes  often  do?  (2.)  Wliat  did  some  dukes  become? 
(S.)  What  powerful  dukes  are  mentioned? 

XXIV. — {!.''  How  did  the  titles  dukes  and  counts  originate  ?     (2.)  What  did 


214  History  of  Governments. 

of  family  distinction.  (3.)  Under  these  high  nobles,  there  grew  np 
an  aristocracy  of  landholding  chiefs,  who,  when  united,  could  com- 
pel the  king  to  do  whatever  they  desired. 

XXV. — (l.)  The  Frankish  nation,  after  Charlemagne's  time, 
became  classified  in  three  divisions,  or  conditions,  of  the  people. 
(2.)  The  first  embraced  religious  and  military  nobles,  called  dukes, 
counts,  seigneurs,  bishops  and  abbots.  (3.)  The  second  contained 
merchants,  small  landholders,  and  inferior  clergy,  or  persons  follow- 
ing trades  and  professions.  (4.)  The  lowest  division  comprised  all 
persons  called  serfs,  ovvilains.  (5.)  These  last  were  laborers,  bound 
to  the  soil,  and  inferior  servants,  without  rights  or  privileges. 

XXVI, — (1.)  Out  of  these  separations  of  the  people,  in  the  em- 
pire established  by  Charlemagne,  arose  two  other  modes  of  political 
combination.  (2.)  The  first  of  these  became  famous  a*  the  Feudal 
System.  (3.)  The  second  was  afterward  knowu  as  the  League 
of  Free  Cities. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE    VISIGOTH    AND    MOORISH    MONARCHIES 

I. — (1.)  That  branch  of  the  barbarian  nations  called  Visi- 
goths conquered  the  Roman  districts  of  Spain,  and  established  a 
kingdom.  (2.)  Their  kings  were  elected  by  the  chiefs,  or  headmen 
of  tribes.  (3.)  These  chiefs  formed  an  aristocracy,  which  kept  the 
royal  authority  in  check. 

they  afterward  become  ?  (3.)  V/hat  grew  up  under  the  Frankish  dukes  and 
counts  ? 

XXV. — (1.)  How  did  the  nation  become  classified?  (2.)  Who  comprised 
the  first  divi.sion  ?  (3.)  Who  composed  the  second  ?  (4.)  What  did  the  third 
comprehend?  (5.)  What  was  the  social  and  political  condition  of  the  last 
division  ? 

XXVI. — (1.)  What  arose  out  of  these  separations  of  the  people?  (2.)  What 
was  the  first  of  these  ?     (3.)  What  was  the  second  ? 

L— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Visigoths  ?  (2.)  What  of  the  kiags  ?  (3.)  What 
did  the  chiefs  form  ? 


The  Visigoth  and  Moorish  Monarchies.        215 

II. — (1.)  The  Visigoths,  after  settlement,  adopted  and  imitated 
the  Roman  laws  and  customs,  (2.)  They  collected  Roman  laws  ia 
a  code,  and  prepared  commentaries  or  notes  to  explain  them. 

III. — (1.)  The  Visigoths  were  oppressors  of  the  native  inhabi- 
tants. (2.)  They  seized  two-thirds  of  their  pi'operty,  and  claimed 
sole  ownership  of  the  soil.  (3.)  The  Visigcthic  possessions  in 
Spain  were  afterward  invaded  by  the  Saracens,  or  Mohammedan 
Arabs,  called  Moors. 

IV. — (1.)  The  Moors  overran  the  greater  part  of  Spain,  and 
established  a  Mohammedan  empire,  (2.)  The  Gothic  Christians  were 
driven  to  the  mountains,  where  they  formed  a  small  monarchy. 
(3.)  The  provinces  and  cities  of  Spain,  under  the  Moors,  were  gov- 
erned by  nobles  called  Emirs,  responsible  to  a  sovereign  known  as  a 
Khalif.  (4.)  At  a  later  period  the  Khalifs  were  replaced  by  nine 
independent  princes,  governing  as  many  provinces. 

V. — (1.)  The  remnant  of  Goths  that  survived  the  Moorish  con- 
quest grew  up  into  several  nationalities  of  Spaniards,  (2.)  They 
struggled  against  the  Moorish  princes  during  several  centuries,  and 
at  length  expelled  them  from  the  country. 

VI. — (1.)  The  Spanish  descendants  of  Goths  received  many 
chartered  privileges  from  their  monarchs.  (2.)  The  people  of  char- 
tered towns  associated  as  vecinas,  or  neiglibors,  under  a  written 
charter  called  a  fuero.  (3.)  The  Spanish  chartered  towns,  chose 
their  own  magistrates,  under  the  name  of  alcades. 

VII. — (1.)  During  the  middle  ages,  Spanish  laws  and  customs 
were  modified  by  feudal  usages.     (2.)  An  aristocracy  was  estab- 

11 — (1.)  What  did  the  Visigoths  adopt?     (2.)  What  did  they  collect? 

ni. — (1.)  What  is  remarked  of  the  Visigoths  ?  (2.)  What  did  they  do  5" 
(3.)  What  befell  them? 

IV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Moors?  (2.)  What  became  of  the  Goths  ? 
(3.)  How  was  Spain  governed  by  the  Moors?  (4.)  What  took  place  at  a  later 
period  ? 

v.— (1.)   What  is  said  of  the  Goths?     (2.)  What  did  they  do  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  did  the  Spanish  people  receive?  (2.)  How  did  they  asso- 
KJite?     (3  )   What  privileges  had  the  chartered  towns? 

VH. — (1.)  What  occurred  during  the  middle  ages?     (2.)  What  was  estab^ 


2i6  History  of  Governments. 

lished,  consisting  of  two  ranks.  (3.)  The  wealthy  laud-possessors 
were  called  ricos  hombres,  or  rich  men.  (4.)  The  military  nobles 
were  known  as  hidalgos.  (5.)  Another  class  was  composed  of 
town  magistrates  and  other  elected  officers.  (6.)  People  who 
worked  the  soil,  or  labored  in  handicrafts,  were  considered  to  be  in- 
ferior, and  possessed  no  voice  in  local  government. 

lished?  (3.)  What  were  wealthy  landowners  called?  (4.)  Who  were  thr 
hidalgos?     (5.)  What   other   class   was   there?    (6.)  What  is  said  of  other 

TH>J^O.VJ'? 


GOVERNMENTS 
DURING    THE   MIDDLE    AGES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE  OF  GERMANY. 

I. — (1.)  The  Gerraaus,  in  earliest  periods  of  history,  were  known 
by  the  general  name  of  barbarian  tribes.  (2.)  They  belonged 
to  numerous  savage  families  that  dwelt  or  roved  in  the  wilder- 
nesses bordering  on  Europe  and  Asia.  (3.)  From  one  great  stock 
they  branched  in  several  directions,  under  various  leaders  and 
national  names. 

II. — (1.)  Each  Germanic  nation  was  composed  of  as  many  tribes 
as  chose  to  associate  together  for  war  or  emigration.  (2.)  The 
earliest  appearance  of  Germans  in  history  is  under  the  name  of 
Gauls.  (3.)  They  made  settlements  on  the  continent  of  Europe  and 
the  northern  islands. 

III. — (1.)  In  later  times  other  Asiatic  families  pressed  south- 
ward upon  the  first  emigrants.  (2.)  Old  and  new  barbarians  be- 
came mixed,  and  formed  new  nationalities  and  divisions.  (3.)  They 
appeared  in  history  as  Gauls,  Germans,  and  eastern  and  western 
Goths.     (4.)  From  these  branched  out  Franks,  Lombards,  Saxons, 

L — (1.)  How  were  Germans  originally  known?  (2.)  To  what  did  they 
belong?     (.3.)  What  did  they  do? 

n. — (1.)  How  was  a  Germanic  nation  composed?  (2.)  Under  what  name 
did  they  first  appear  in  Europe?     (3.)   Where  did  they  settle? 

m.— (1.)  What  toolc  place  afterward?  (2.)  What  then  occurred  >  (S.) 
Dnder  what  names  did  they  appear?     (4.)   What  branches  are  mentioned? 

10  21T 


2i8  History  of  Governments. 

Normans,  Angles,  and  other  nations,  which  have  since  given  their 
names  to  European  countries.  (5.)  The  Gauls  originally  gave 
name  to  the  country  now  called  France,  but  were  displaced  in  pos- 
session and  name  by  the  Franks. 

rV. — (1.)  Government,  among  German  clans,  was  usually  in  the 
hands  of  a  military  aristocracy,  composed  of  chiefs  or  headmen  of 
tribes.  (2.)  These  chose  a  king,  as  head  of  a  combination  of 
tribes,  and  shared  authority  as  his  counsellors  and  governors. 

V. — (1.)  Two  general  forms  of  government  were  in  use  among 
German  nations.  (2.)  One  of  these  is  represented  in  the  limited 
monarchy  adopted  by  the  Franks.  (3.)  The  other  was  a  more  ab- 
solute monarchy,  as  observed  in  the  Gothic  systems. 

VI. — (1.)  After  the  subjugation  of  Rome  by  Goths,  the  terri- 
•tory  of  Germany  remained  in  possession  of  many  rude  tribes,  under 
distinct  names.  (2.)  Among  them  were  Huns,  Paunonians,  Sarma- 
tians,  Sclav es,  Avarians,  and  Helvetians.  (3.)  From  these  tribes 
descended  Hungarians,  Russians,  Poles,  Bohemians,  Austrians,  and 
Swiss. 

VII. — (1)  The  various  tribes  were  conquered  by  generals  of 
Charlemagne.  (2.)  Districts  in  which  they  dwelt  were  joined  to 
the  Prankish  or  French  empire.  (3.)  After  the  death  of  Charle- 
magne they  revolted,  under  their  chiefs,  and  elected  a  monarch  of 
their  own.     (4.)  This  revolt  was  the  origin  of  the  German  empire. 

VIII. —  (1.)  The  German  empire  was,  at  first,  a  combination  of 
independent  nations,  each  with  its  sovereign.     (2.)  They  united  only 

(a.)  What  is  said  of  the  Gauls? 

IV.— (1.)  How  were  German  tribes  governed  ?     (2.)  What  did  the  chiefs  do  ? 

V. — (1.)  How  many  general  form.*  of  government  are  mentioned?  (2.) 
What  did  one  form  represent?     (S.)  What  was  the  other  form? 

VI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Germany?  (2.)  Name  some  of  these  tiibes  * 
■,3.)  What  nations  have  descended  from  these  tribes? 

Vn.— (1.)  Who  conquered  the  various  tribes?  (2.)  What  became  of  their 
territories?  (3.)  What  occurred  at  Charlemagne's  death  ?  (4.)  Of  what  was 
this  the  origin  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  What  was  the  German  empire  at  first?     (2.)  What  was  the  ob- 


The  Holy  Ron.an  Empire  of  Germany.       219 

for  purposes  of  war,  and  to  extend  their  dominion.  (3.)  The  Ger- 
man emperors  succeeded  in  obtaining  sovereignty  over  portions  of 
France* and  Italy.  (4.)  The  German  Confederacy  protected  the 
authority  of  Roman  Popes,  and  took  the  name  of  Holy  Roman 
Empire. 

IX. — (1.)  The  emperors  were  chosen  by  votes  of  the  minor 
raonarchs,  in  a  council  called  the  National  Did.  (2.)  The  name  of 
vector  became  a  title  to  designate  one  of  the  chiefs,  or  sovereigns, 
who  was*  entitled  to  vote  for  an  emperor. 

X.— (I.)  The  confederation  of  electoral  states  continued  to  be 
-called  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  of  Germany  during  several  centu- 
ries. (2.)  Its  separate  princes  remained  independent  of  each  other, 
and  were  sometimes  at  war  on  opposite  sides.  (3.)  The  principal 
governments  afterward  became  consolidated  under  jurisdiction  of 
the  Emperor  of  Austria. 

XI.— 1.  At  the  death  of  Charlemagne,  most  of  the  nations  of 
France,  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  English  islands,  were  divided  into 
higher  and  lower  orders  of  people.  (2.)  The  feudal  system  began 
at  that  period,  and  continued  through  several  centuries  known  as 
the  dark  asres. 


ject  of  their  union?  (?>.1  What  was  the  result?  (4.)  ^^  hat  did  the  German 
Confederacy  do  ? 

IX.— (1.)  How  were  emperors  chosen  ?  ('2.)  What  did  the  name  of  elector 
become  ? 

X.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Confederation?  (2,)  What  of  its  princes? 
(5.)  How  were  the  principal  governments  consolidated? 

XL — (1.)  What  divisions  took  place  at  the  death  of  Charlemagne  ?  (2.) 
What  system  t^ien  begau  ? 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    FEUDAL    SYSTEM    AXD    CHIVALRY 

I. — (1.'^  When  uncivilized  nations  became  masters  of  Europe, 
nearly  all  the  laws  of  Greece  and  Rome  were  replaced  by  regula- 
tions founded  on  barbarian  customs.  (2.)  The  conversion  of  the 
invading  people  to  Christianity  softened  their  rude  manners,  but  did 
uot  teach  them  the  lost  knowledge  of  ancient  times. 

II. — (1.)  In  many  respects,  the  administration  of  political  affairs 
among  barbarian  nations  v>'as  based  on  justice.  (2.)  The  custom 
of  meeting  in  assemblies,  of  electing  chiefs  and  kings,  and  transact- 
ing other  public  business  in  common,  as  among  the  Franks,  was 
founded  on  principles  of  liberty  and  popular  independence. 

Ill, — (1.)  When  conquering  tribes  established  themselves  in 
rich  countries,  their  kings  and  chiefs  became  ambitious  to  retain 
authority  over  the  people  during  peace,  as  they  had  exercised  it  in 
war.  (2.)  To  effect  this,  the  new  monarchs  appointed  their  chief 
followers  to  govern,  under  the  names  of  dukes,  counts,  and  mar- 
graves, or  marquises. 

IV. —  (1)  Dnkes,  as  before  mentioned,  were  made  military  com- 
manders over  provinces,  and  were  next  to  the  kings  in  authority. 
(2.)  Sometimes  a  duke  bore  the  title  of  viceroy,  meaning  that  he 
stood  in  place  of  the  monarch.  (3.)  Counts  were  next  highest  iu 
jurisdiction.  (4.)  They  had  authority  as  magistrates,  in  peace  :^d 
were  summoned  as  subordinate  leaders,  in  time  of  war. 

I, — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Grecian  and  Roman  laws?  (2.)  What  was  eflPected 
by  Cliristianity  ? 

n. — (1  )  What  is  said  of  barbarian  governments  ?  (2.)  What  customs  are 
remarked  upon  ? 

TTT- — (1.)  What  occurred  when  barbarous  tribes  settled  ?  (2.)  What  did  the 
new  monarchs  do  ? 

IV.— (1.)  What  is  remarked  concerning  dukes?  (2.)  What  title  did  a  duke 
sometimes  bear ?     {?>.)  What  were  counts?     (4)  What  was  their  authority  ? 


The  Feudal  System  and  Chivalry.  221 

V. — (1.)  Marquises,  or  marchers,  were  officers  who  exercised  the 
authority  of  duices  and  counts  on  the  borders,  or  marches,  of  the 
country.  (2.)  Tiiey  were  representatives  of  the  dukes  and  the 
king,  in  defending  the  frontiers  of  a  kingdom.  (3.)  Marquises  oc- 
cupied forts,  called  castles,  generally  built  by  the  king  and  placed 
in  their  charge. 

VI. — (1.)  Sometimes  an  officer  of  the  king  received  a  grant  of 
land  on  which  to  build  a  castle,  with  the  provision  that  he  should 
keep  off  all  enemies  from  that  part  of  the  frontier.  (2.)  He  thus 
became  a  marquis,  or  lord  of  the  border.  (3.)  Sometimes  a  large 
landholder  erected  a  castle  at  his  own  expense. 

VII. — (1.)  Wherever  a  castle  was  held,  it  was  necessary  for  its 
lord  to  keep  in  pay  a  requisite  number  of  soldiers  to  defend  it. 
(2.)  People  who  tilled  the  soil,  or  worked  at  handicraft,  settled 
around  each  stronghold,  for  personal  security.  (3.)  The  lord  of  a 
castle  permitted  them  to  establish  a  village  on  his  lands  and  to 
plant  in  the  soil. 

VIII. — (1.)  In  return  for  a  noble's  protection,  as  well  as  the  use 
of  his  land  for  dwelling  and  tillage,  those  who  settled  obligated 
themselves  to  certain  conditions.  (2.)  They  promised  to  devote  a 
part  of  their  time  to  cultivating  the  landlord's  fields,  and  waiting 
on  him  in  other  domestic  service.  (3.)  They  agreed  to  follow  him 
in  time  of  war,  and  to  bring  their  disputes  to  him  for  settlement. 

IX. —  (1.)  In  course  of  time,  castles  were  built  whenever  a  pro- 
prietor of  land  could  control  the  means  and  establish  a  claim  to 
nobility.     (2.)  In  many  cases,  they  were   erected   by  unprincipled 

v.— (1.)  What  were  the  marquises?  (2.)  Who  did  they  represent?  (3.) 
What  did  they  occupy  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  did  an  officer  sometimes  receive  ?  (2.)  What  did  he  become  ? 
(8.)  What  did  a  large  landholder  sometimes  do? 

VII. — (1.)  What  was  necessary  when  a  castle  was  built?  (2.)  'Wlio  settled 
near  it?     (3.;  What  did  the  lord  permit  them  to  do  ? 

Vin. — (1  )  How  did  the  people  obligate  themselves?  (2.)  What  did  they 
promise?     (3.)  To  what  did  they  agree? 

IX.— (1.)  What  took  place  in  course  of  time  ?  (2.)  What  occurred  in  many 
cases  ? 


222  History  of  Governments. 

adventurers    upon   rocky    emiuences,    and    used    as   mere  deus  of 
robbers. 

X.— (1.)  Sometimes  an  unscrupulous  soldier  raised  a  band  of 
daring  comrades  and  took  possession  of  a  castle,  driving  out  its 
owner.  (2.)  EstabliJJiiiig  himself  with  his  ruffians,  he  tyrannized 
over  inhabitants  of  the  neighboring  villages,  and  tillers  of  the 
soil. 

XI. — ■(!.)  The  owner  of  one  castle  often  made  war  on  the  pos- 
sessor of  another,  and  forced  him  to  yield  up  his  stronghold  and 
village.  (2.)  The  heir  of  one  castle's  lord  often  married  the  heiress 
of  another  castle,  and  the  two  properties  became  united. 

XII. — (1.)  In  this  manner,  and  by  gifts  of  the  monarch  or  dukes, 
the  lower  classes  of  nobles  grew  to  be  more  powerful.  (2.)  The 
dukes  and  counts,  and  other  holders  of  large  territories,  continued 
to  augment  their  possessions  and  privileges  by  similar  means. 

XIII. — (1.)  The  members  and  families  of  nobility  became  a 
great  aristocracy  of  landholders.  (2.)  They  took  care  of  their  own 
advantage,  as  individuals  or  a  class,  without  regard  to  any  interests 
of  the  community  at  large.  (3.)  On  occasions,  they  found  them- 
selves powerful  enough  to  combine  against  the  king,  and  force  him 
to  yield  to  their  pleasure. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  landed  nobility  became  the  ruling  class  in  a 
nation,  because  monarchs  depended  on  them  for  the  defence  of  royal 
authority.  (2.)  During  feudal  ages,  there  was  generally  one  or 
another  noble  at  war  with  a  neighbor,  or  in  rebellion  against  the 
monarch,  his  master.  (3.)  The  king  was  often  forced  to  call  upon 
friends  among  the  nobles,  in  order  to  protect  his  throne  from  at- 
tacks of  another  portion  of  the  nobility  in  open  arms  against  him. 

X. — (1.)  What  was  sometimes  done?     (2.)  How  did  he  conduct  himself? 

XI. — (1.)  What  did  the  owner  of  a  castle  often  do?  (2.)  What  else  took 
place  ? 

Xn. — (1.)  What  was  the  result  of  these  things?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  large 
landholders  ? 

Xin.— (1.)  What  did  the  nobility  become  ?  (2.)  How  did  they  act?  (3.) 
What  did  they  find  themselves  ? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  landed  nobility  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  theii 
conflicts?     (3.)  What  was  the  king  often  obliged  to  do? 


The  Feudal  System  and  Chivalry.  223 

XV. — (1.)  The  nobility  exercised  authority  over  all  inferior  peo- 
ple, according  to  their  rank  and  power.  (2.)  A  second  or  third 
class  noble  could  be  a  tyrant  within  the  limits  of  his  own  domain, 
unless  some  one  equal  or  superior  to  himself  interfered  to  oppose 
him.     (3.)  This  was  in  accordance  with  the  whole  Feudal  System. 

XVI. — (1.)  By  this  system,  the  king  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  powerful  nobility  merely  as  a  sign  that  they  belonged  to  one 
nation,  and  as  a  leader  in  warfare.  (2.)  Whatever  power  he 
enjoyed  proceeded  from  the  possession  of  great  and  commanding 
personal  qualities.  (3.)  When  he  could  control  the  nobility  by  his 
will,  he  was  an  absolute  monarch.  (4.)  Accordingly  as  nobles  were 
combined  against  him  or  in  his  favor,  so  far  was  his  authority  des- 
potic or  limited. 

XVII. — (1.)  Similar  restrictions  governed  the  power  of  nobles. 
(2.)  They  all  pretended  to  regard  the  monarch  as  owner  of  their 
lands,  and  acknowledged  themselves  bound  to  his  service,  in  con- 
sideration thereof.  (3.)  Every  heiress  of  a  noble,  who  became  an 
orphan,  was  considered  to  be  under  guardianship  of  the  monarch. 
(4.)  He  claimed  the  right  to  take  charge  of  her  income  and  dispose 
of  her  in  marriage.  ' 

XVIII. —  (1.)  A  monarch  assumed  authority  to  summon  every 
noble  of  his  kingdom,  high  or  low,  to  answer  for  any  ofifence,  to  take 
oath  of  allegiance,  perform  stipulated  service,  or  pay  customary 
tribute.  (2.)  A  monarch  possessed  the  right  to  propose  laws  for 
the  raising  of  revenue,  by  tax  or  otherwise,  and  to  assemble  the  par- 
liament to  have  them  acted  upon. 

XIX. — (1.)    Superior  nobles,  such  as  dukes  and  other  great 

XV (1.)  What  authority  did  nobles  wield?     (2.)  What  is  said  of  in*'e'--oi 

nobles?     (3.)  With  what  was  this  in  accordance  ? 

XVI. — (1.)  What  was  the  Icing's  position?  (2.)  Vhi^t  power  could  he  exer 
else  ?     (o.)  When  was  he  absolute  ?     (4.)   IIow  was  his  authority  influenced? 

XVn.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  power  of  nobles?  (2.)  What  did  they 
all  pretend?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  an  heiress?  (4.)  What  did  the  monarch 
claim  ? 

XVin. — (1.)  What  authority  did  a  monarch  assume?  (2.)  What  right  did 
he  possess  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  Wliat  were  superior  nobles  called  during  feudal  ages? 


224  History  of  Governments. 

landholdtTs,  were  called  crown-vassals  and  barons  of  the  kingdom 
(2.)  The  king  usually  selected  his  counsellors  from  among  these. 
(3.)  Crown-princes,  or  brothers  and  sons  of  the  monarch,  were  the 
highest  among  them.  (4.)  They  usually  possessed  large  estates, 
sometimes  entire  provinces,  which  were  called  appanages  of  the 
crown.  (5.)  Some  crown-princes  governed  principalities  or  duke- 
doms, in  their  right,  as  vassals  of  the  monarch,  and  were  independ- 
ent rulers  over  their  own  domains. 

XX. — (1.)  Besides  dukes,  counts,  marquises,  and  other  high 
nolijes,  there  were  others,  called  viscounts,  earls,  barons,  knights 
and  baronets.  (2.)  There  were  church  dignitaries,  or  ecclesiastical 
lords,  who  held  possessions  in  lands,  castles,  and  even  towns. 
(3.)  These  were  cardinals  and  bishops  of  the  Roman  church,  and 
heads  of  convents  and  other  religious  houses,  styled  abbots  and 
priors. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  people  of  a  town,  village,  or  district,  could 
acknowledge  a  bishop,  or  other  church  dignitary,  to  be  their  liege 
lord,  and  obligate  themselves  to  do  service,  to  him  for  use  of  his 
lands,  or  for  his  proteq^on.  (2.)  The  bishop,  on  his  part,  was 
expected  to  maintain  armed  men  to  defend  the  people.  (3.)  He 
was  also  expected  to  secure  a  proper  administration  of  justice,  as  a 
magistrate. 

XXII. —  (1.)  Laws  ordained  by  parliament,  or  otherwise  estab- 
lished, were  seldom  observed  as  rules  by  nobles  on  their  own 
domains.  (2.)  Each  seigneur,  according  to  his  degree,  his  position, 
or  the  extent  of  his  lands,  claimed  to  be  a  sovereign  over  the  classes 
beneath  him.  (3.)  Powerful  barons  made  their  own  pleasure  and 
will  the  only  laws  of  their  action  toward  inferiors. 

(2.)  What  did  the  king  select  from  these  ?  (3.)  Who  wore  the  highest  nobles  ? 
(4.)  What  did  they  usually  possess?     (5.)  What  is  said  of  some  crown-princes? 

XX. — (1  )  What  nobles  are  enumerated  by  their  titles?  (2.)  What  is  said 
of  church  dignitaries?      (3.)  Who  were  these  dignitaries? 

XXI. — (1.)  What  could  the  people  of  a  town  do  ?  (2.)  What  was  expected 
of  the  bishop?     (3.)  For  what  else  was  he  looked  to? 

XXII. — (1.)  How  were  parliamentary  laws  regarded?  (2.)  What  did  each 
seigneur  claim  ?     (3.)  What  did  powerful  barons  do  ? 


The   Feuda!   System  and  Chivalry.  225 

XXIII. — (1.)  A  monarch  claimed  the  exclusive  privilege  of 
making  war  and  peace,  coining  money,  and  exercising  other  sover- 
eWn  authority.  (2.)  Powerful  nobles  often  assumed  such  privileges 
themselves,  and  raised  forces  or  issued  money  from  their  own 
territories. 

XXIV. — (1.)  The  nobility  defied  their  superiors,  the  kings,  at 
ev.ery  opportunity.  (2.)  They  oppressed  their  vassals  and  robbed 
the  industrious  chisses. 

XXV. — (1.)  The  masses  of  the  people,  under  feudal  usages,  were 
divided  into  trading  and  laboring  classes.  (2.)  Merchants  were 
able,  in  some  countries,  to  combine  and  build  wailed  cities.  (3.) 
Several  of  these  cities  united  in  a  league  of  commerce  and  mutual 
defence.  (4.)  They  thus  became  formidable  to  the  nobles,  and  often 
assisted  the  king  in  his  struggles  against  rebellious  vassals. 

XXVI. — (1.)  Agriculturists  and  mechanics  were  in  general  little 
better  than  slaves.  (2.)  Laborers  who  lived  on  the  estates  of 
nobles,  as  tenants,  or  vassals,  were  considered  to  belong  to  the  laud 
which  they  cultivated.  (3.)  A  baron  was  permitted,  by  feudal  law, 
to  condemn  one  of  these  vassals  to  any  punishment  whatever.  (4.) 
He  exercised  supreme  authority  over  the  persons  of  his  serfs  and 
their  families.  (5.)  He  could  sell  them,  with  his  lands,  and  they 
were  forbidden  to  escape  from  bondage. 

XXVII. — (I.)  Under  the  feudal  system,  there  was  no  guaranty,  by 
law,  for  an  individual's  life  or  property.     (2.)  The  weak  were  always 

XXIII. — (1.)  What  did  a  monarch  claim  ?  (2.)  What  did  powerful  nobles 
often  assume  ? 

XXIV.— (1.)  What  was  done  by  the  nobility  ?  (2.)  Wliat  wrong  did  they 
commit? 

XXV. — (1.)  How  were  the  people  divided?  (2.)  What  were  niercliants  able 
to  do?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  such  cities?  (4.)  What  was  the  eft'ect  of  their 
combination  ? 

XXVI. — (1.)  What  was  the  condition  of  farmers  and  mechanics  ?  (2.)  What 
is  said  of  tenants  or  vassals  ?  (3.)  What  power  had  a  baron  over  vassals  ? 
(4.)  What  authori.,y  did  he  wield  ?  (6.)  What  was  the  relation  between  lords 
and  serfs  ? 

XXVn. — (1.)  What  security  was  tiiere  for  individuals  under  feudal  law  f 
(2.)  What  was  the  rule  of  authority  under  custom  of  feudalism  ? 


226  History  of  Governments. 

subject,  more  or  less,  tc  the  attacks  of  the  strong.  (3.)  As  an  ar- 
bitrary remedy  for  this  condition  of  insecurity,  the  institution  of 
Chivah'y  arose. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  Chivalry  was  the  title  bestowed  upon  a  practice 
which  came  into  vogue  during  the  feudal  ages.  (2.)  This  consisted 
in  the  establishment  of  bodies  of  men  under  the  name  of  Orders  of 
Knighthood.  (3.)  Those  who  devoted  themselves  to  a  life  of  chi- 
valry were  called  knights. 

XXIX. — (1.)  Knights  were  bound  by  oath  to  be  virtuous, 
brave,  and  patient,  under  hardships.  (2.)  They  were  sworn  to  pro- 
tect the  innocent,  redress  injuries,  and  defend  the  weak,  more  par- 
ticularly defenceless  women.  (3.)  Many  knights  were  accustomed 
to  wander  from  land  to  land,  and  were  known  as  knights-errants. 

XXX. — (1.)  Admission  to  knighthood  was  esteemed  to  be  a  great 
honor.  (2.)  There  were  religious  orders  of  knights,  bound  very 
strictly  by  their  vows.  (3.)  The  institution  of  knighthood  was  of 
great  use  in  softening  the  ferocity  of  war,  and  preserving  respect 
for  the  female  sex.  (4. )  It  did  not  effect  much  for  the  oppressed 
people,  but  was  usually  manifested  in  romantic  devotion  to  honor 
between  noble  or  "  high-born "  individuals.  (6.)  It  became  cor- 
rupted afterward  to  a  mere  distinction  of  rank. 

XXXI.— (1.)  Monarchs,  in  feudal  times,  discovered  their  dignity 
to  be  decreasing,  as  the  higher  class  became  stronger.  (2.)  They 
endeavored  to  check  the  power  of  nobles  by  encouraging  the  third 
estate,  or  class  of  the  people.  (3.)  They  granted  merchants  and 
other  citizens  the  privilege  to  choose  their  own  magistrates  in  cities 
which  they  occupied.     (4.)  They  established  laws,  ordaining  that 

(3.)  What  arbitrary  remedy  arose  from  this  state  of  things? 

XXVm.— (1.)  What  IS  said  of  chivalry  ?  (2.)  Of  what  did  this  practice, 
consist  ?     (3.)  What  were  members  of  such  bodies  called  ? 

XXIX.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  knights?  (2.)  To  what  were  they  sworn? 
(3.)   Who  were  the  knights-errant  ? 

XXX.— (1.)  How  was  knighthood  regarded  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  religious 
knights?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  knighthood ?  (4.)  What  did  it  not  effect? 
(5.^  What  was  the  end  of  knighthood? 

XXXI.— (1.)  What  did  monarchs  discover?  (2.)  What  did  they  endeavoi 
to  do?     [Z.)   How  did  they  proceed  to  do  this ?     (4.)  What  laws  did  they  sane- 


The  Feudal  System  and  Chivalry.  227 

serfs  wlio  might  escape  from  the  estates  of  theii-  lords,  and  live  in 
one  of  the  free  cities  for  a  year,  should  become  freemen,  and  be  no 
longer  liable  to  service.  (5.)  Courts  of  law  on  estates  were  also 
abolished,  by  degrees,  and  king's  or  parliament's  decrees  were  de- 
clared laws  of  the  land. 

XXXII. — (1.)  The  most  serious  check  given  to  the  feudal  sys 
tem  was  by  the  establishment  of  armies  under  control  of  the  sove 
reign.  (2.)  With  soldiers  to  execute  their  authority,  the  monarchs 
were  able  to  punish  their  rebellious  barons.  (3.)  The  money  neces- 
sary to  support  armies  was  contributed  by  merchants  and  working 
classes,  in  taxes  paid*  to  the  royal  officers.  (4.)  Armies  were  re- 
cruited from  the  people  at  large,  and  officered  by  the  king.  (5.) 
The  industry  and  commercial  wealth  of  the  people  were  thus  made 
to  balance  the  landed  property  of  the  nobility. 

XXXIII. — (1.)  The  increase  of  wealth  and  general  prosperity 
of  communities,  protected  in  trade  and  labor,  enabled  them  to  assist 
the  monarchs  who  encouraged  them.  (2.)  The  union  of  citizens  iu 
free  towns,  and  tlie  foundation  of  commercial  or  industrial  leagues, 
enabled  the  middle  classes  to  exert  their  first  influence  on  govern- 
ment. 

tion  ?     (5.)  What  otlier  changes  were  effected  V 

XXXn. — (1.)  What  was  the  most  serious  check  given  to  feudal  customs? 
(2.)  What  were  iiioiiarehs  able  to  do  with  such  armies?  (3.)  Who  furnished 
means  to  support  the  king's  soldiers?  (4.)  How  were  the  armies  formed? 
(5.)  What  balance  of  interests  was  thus  brought  about  ? 

XXXm. — (1.)    What    was    the    consequence    of    commercial   prosperity 
('i.)  What  did  ccmbiuations  enable  citizens  tc  do  ? 


CHAPTER  III. 

ORIGIN      OF      SLAVERY. 

I. — (1.)  Tee  custom  of  enslaving  individuals  originated  in  two 
motives.  (2.)  The  first  was  a  merciful  desire  to  save  life  ;  the 
second,  to  obtain  victims  for  sacrificial  purposes.  (3.)  Love  of 
gain  afterward  modified  the  practice,  and  rendered  it  common  among 
ancient  nations. 

II. — (1.)  The  earliest  conflicts  between  savage  tribes  were  cruel 
and  sanguinary.  (2.)  When  numbers  constituted  the  main  strength 
of  a  war  party,  it  was  the  object  of  combatants  to  kill  as  many  foes 
as  they  could.  (3.)  In  this  way,  a  whole  tribe  was  often  extermi- 
nated by  enemies. 

III. — (1.)  A  community  that  depended  on  the  products  of  hunt- 
ing, for  subsistence,  could  not  support  captives  in  a  condition  of 
servitude.  (2.)  They  made  prisoners  in  battle  only  for  the  pur- 
pose of  inflicting  tortures  upon  them,  or  devoting  them  as  sacrifices 
to  the  gods  of  their  worship. 

IV. — (1.)  Some  ferocious  or  needy  tribes  were  cannibals,  and 
preserved  their  prisoners  for  food.  (2.)  Others  permitted  a  cap- 
tive to  join  their  ranks,  when  some  family  of  their  number  desired 
to  adopt  the  stranger,  with  his  own  consent,  as  a  member. 

V, — (1.)  When  mankind  became  numerous  in  nations,  the  prac- 
tice of  killing  enemies  after  a  battle,  was  generally  abandoned, 
except  in   cases  of   revenge  or  punishment.     (2.)  Prisoners  were 

L — (1.)  How  did  slavery  originate?  (2.)  What  were  these  motives?  (3.) 
How  was  the  practice  modified  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  savage  war?  (2.)  What  was  an  object  with  com- 
batants?    (3.)  What  was  often  the  consequence? 

m. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  a  community  of  hunters?  (2.)  Why  did 
they  make  prisoners  ? 

IV. — (1.)   What  is  remarked  of  some  tribes?     (2.)  What  of  others? 

V. — (1.)  When  was  the  practice  of  killing  enemies  abandoned?  (2.)  What 
223 


Origin  of  Slavery.  229 

spared  aud  held  for  ransom  by  their  captors.  (3.)  By  rausoiii 
was  meant  the  privilege  of  redeeming  a  captive  for  a  certain 
price  in  weapons,  cattle,  or  other  valuables,  paid  by  his  countrymen 
or  kindred. 

VI. — (I.)  The  equivalent  demanded  for  liberating  a  captive  was 
more  or  less,  according  to  the  person's  rank  or  importance  among 
his  countrymen.  (2.)  This  equivalent  was  generally  required  to 
be  paid  within  a  stated  time.  p 

VII. — (1.)  If  a  prisoner's  tribe  or  f;i rally  did  not  pay  ransom, 
the  captive  was  transferred  for  the  price  to  any  other  person  who 
required  service  done,  either  among  the  captors  or  strangers.  (2.) 
Unransomed  captives  became  subject  to  tlie  pleasure  of  purchasers, 
and  slavery  was  thus  established  among  early  nations.  (3.)  The 
practice  extended  in  proportion  as  their  hunting  life  was  exchanged 
for  agricultural  or  pastoral  pursuits,  because  the  labor  of  servants 
grew  valuable  in  the  same  degree. 

VIII. (1.)  When  communities  were  formed,  dwellings  built,  and 

fields  cultivated,  settlers  began  to  exchange  the  products  of  agricul- 
ture for  other  commodities  possessed  by  wandering  tribes.  (2.) 
They  sold  corn,  wine,  oil,  weapons  and  ornaments,  and  received  in 
return  the  skins  of  beasts,  ivory  and  ornaments.  (3.)  When  wan- 
dering traders  saw  that  servants  were  in  demand,  they  bought 
prisoners  taken  in  battle,  and  bartered  them  for  whatever  goods 
the  settlers  had  to  sell. 

IX. (1.)   Traffic   in  slaves  thus  became  a.  regular   brancli   of 

commerce.  (2.)  Some  of  the  wandering  x\rabian  tribes  devoted 
themselves  entirely  to  the  business  of  buying  and  selling  men,  women 
and  children.     (3.)  The  Midianite  merchants  who  purchased  Joseph, 

other  course  was  adopted  ?     (3.)  What  was  understood  by  ransom  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  was  the  amount  required  for  ransom?  (2.)  When  was  it 
paid  ? 

Vn. — (1.)  What  was  done  when  ransom  was  not  paid  '.'  ('2.i  What  was  the 
result  of  this?     (3.)  How  did  tlio  practice  e.xtend  ? 

Vni.— (1.)  How  did  tradlc  or  commerce  begin  to  grow?  (2.)  What  ex- 
changes were  made  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  servants  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What  (lid  traffic  in  slaves  become?  (2)  What  is  said  of  some 
Arabian  tribes?     (3.)  What  Scripture  incident  of  slavery  is  mentioned? 


230  History  of  Governments. 

as  related  in  Scripture,  belonged  to  oue  of  these  roving  communities. 
(4.)  Slave-making  and  slave-trading  were  considered  proper  to  com 
raercial  intercourse  between  both  barbarous  and  civilized  nations. 

X. — (1.)  The  hardships  and  sufferings  of  slavery  in  old  times 
were  greater  or  less  according  to  the  disposition  of  masters,  or  the 
regulations  of  society  and  government  concerning  slave-holding. 
(2.)  Among  Greeks,  Romans,  Phoenicians  and  other  nations,  slaves 
were  deprived  of  all  rights  and  privilegeSj  and  made  entirely  subject 
to  those  who  owned  them.  (3.)  Among  Hebrews,  the  condition  of 
slaves  was  improved  by  law,  and  they  were  restored  to  liberty  at 
certain  festival  seasons. 

XI. — (1.)  During  the  first  wars  of  the  Roman  commonwealth. 
it  was  usual  to  make  captive  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  captured  city, 
and  sell  them  like  cattle,  at  public  auction.  (2.)  In  aftfer  years, 
w'hen  Roman  armies  conquered  whole  nations,  the  prisoners  taken 
in  battle  were  usually  enslaved,  and  the  rest  allowed  to  escape. 
(3.)  Sometimes  thousands  were  reserved  to  fight  one  another,  as 
gladiators,  in  the  Roman  theatres.  (4.)  Gladiators  were  generally 
taken  from  among  Thracians,  Dacians  and  other  rude  tribes. 
(5.)  They  were  trained  in  schools,  to  fight  with  different  weapons, 
for  public  amusement  on  holidays. 

XII. —  (1.)  Military  conquerors,  in  early  times,  were  accustomed 
to  reduce  entire  nations  to  slavery.  (2.)  Kings  of  Syria,  Persia 
and  Egypt  carried  the  Hebrew  nation  into  foreign  captivity  on 
several  occasions.  (3.)  Titus,  who  destroyed  Jerusalem  with  a 
Roman  army,  made  slaves  of  one  hundred  thousand  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. (4.)  In  the  wars  of  Julius  Cassar,  a  million  captives  were 
taken  from  their  homes  and  sold  into  slavery. 

(4.)  How  were  slave-making  and  slave-dealing  regarded  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  is  remarked  of  ancient  slavery?  (2.)  What  nations  oppressed 
slaves  most?     (3.)  What  nation  had  laws  to  improve  their  condition? 

XI. — (1.)  What  was  the  custom  of  early  Romans  ?  (•>.)  What  was  their 
practice  afterward?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  gladiators  ?  '(4.)  From  what  nations 
were  gladiators  usually  taken?     (5.)  How  were  they  trained? 

Xn. — (1.)  What  were  military  conquerors  accustomed  to  do?  (2.)  What  'did 
early  kings  do  ?  (3.)  What  was  doce  by  Titus  ?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  Caesar's 
wars  ?  • 


Origin  of  Slavery.  231 

XIII.— (1."  Diiriug  the  feudal  ages,  captives  taken  in  war  were 
usually  permitted  to  redeem  themselves  by  paying  ransom.  (2.)  Cap- 
tains and  soldiers  who  made  prisoners  in  battle  were  allowed  to 
claim  them  as  prizes,  to  be  redeemed  for  stipulated  sums.  (3.) 
Kings,  nobles,  knights,  and  other  captives  taken,  were  held  at  a 
price  according  to  personal  rank  or  wealth. 

XIV. (1.)  During  modern  centuries,  barbarous  nations,  dwell- 
ing on  the  coast  of  Africa,  engaged  in  the  business  of  making  pri- 
soners for  the  purpose  of  selling  them  into  slavery.  (2.)  They  built 
cities  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  sailed  out  in  ships,  under  the  name 
of  Tunisians,  Tripolitans  and  Algerines,  or  Barbary  pirates.  (3.) 
They  were  Mohammedans,  and  captured  merchant  ships,  or  made 
descents  on  settlements,  for  the  purpose  of  enslaving  Christian  crews 
and  inhabitants.  (4.)  Their  prisoners,  when  not  ransomed  by 
friends,  were  sold  to  perpetual  slavery.  (5.)  This  piratical  slave 
trade  continued  to  be  common  during  several  centuries,  and  has 
been  but  lately  abandoned  by  Barbary  nations. 

XV.— (1.)  Savage  tribes  and  individual  natives  of  Africa  were 
enslaved  by  ancient  nations  as  far  back  as  human  record  extends. 
(2.)  Egyptian  and  Ethiopian  ruling  classes  made  slaves  of  inferior 
tribes,  whether  white  or  black.  (3.)  Black  slaves  were  usually  de- 
voted to  household  service. 

XVI.— (1.)  When  Spanish  conquerors  gained  possession  of 
Mexico,  Peru,  and  other  American  countries,  they  forced  the  aborigi- 
nal inhabitants  to  work  mines,  build  houses,  make  roads,  and  perform 
all  hard  labor  and  menial  service.    (2.)  They  treated  these  native  in- 


VTTT— (1.)  How  were  captives  treated  during  feudal  ages?  (2.)  How  were 
they  claimed  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  their  ransoms? 

XrV.  — (1.)  What  has  taken  place  during  modern  centuries?  (2.)  What  did 
the  Barbary  pirates  do  ?  (3)  What  purpose  had  they?  (4.)  What  became  of 
such  prisoners  ?     (5.)  What  is  remarked  about  this  trade? 

XV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  African  slaves?  (2.)  What  was  the  castom 
among  Egyptians  and  Ethiopians  ?  (3.)  To  what  service  were  black  slaves 
devoted  ? 

XVI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Spanish  conquerors?  (2.)  How  did  they  treat 
the  natives  ? 


232  History  of  Governments. 

habitants  with  such  great  cruelty,  that  sympathy  became  en- 
listed in  their  behalf. 

XVII. — (1.)  It  was  feared  that  the  Indians  could  not  be 
civilized  or  taught  Christianity,  unless  they  received  better 
treatment  from  the  Spaniards.  (2.)  The  government  of  Spain 
encouraged  its  subjeets  to  transport  black  slaves  from  Africa 
to  America,  in  order  to  better  the  condition  of  native  Indians. 
(3.)  It  was  argued  that  both  blacts  and  Indians  would  receive 
benefit,  the  first  in  being  relieved  from  slavery,  and  the  second 
by  receiving  instruction  in  the  C/hristian  religion  from  their 
Spanish  masters. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  African  slave  trade  of  modern  times 
was  thus  established  by  law,  and  continued  to  flourish  for  a 
long  while.  (2.)  Thousands  of  vessels  were  sent  to  the  borders 
of  Africa,  to  obtain  cargoes  of  slaves.  (3.)  Black  tribes  of  that 
country  made  war  ujjon  each  other,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  tak- 
ing prisoners,  to  sell  to  white  traders.  (4.)  The  greater 
number  of  slaves  made  so,  were  brought  to  America,  and  sold 
to  the  settlers. 

3CIX. — (1.)— During  the  present  century,  laws  have  been 
passed  to  abolish  the  traffic  in  slaves,  among  civilized  nations. 
(2.)  Black  slavery  has  been  abolished  in  all  Republics  of  the 
American  continent.  (3.)  In  the  empire  of  Brazil,  and  some 
Spanish  islands,  blacks  and  their  descendants  are  kept  as  slaves 
to  perform  agricultural  and  other  labors.  (4.)  In  the  United 
States,  slavery  has  been  abolished,  and  negroes  are  admitted  to 
citizenship. 

XX. — (1.)  In  African  and  Asiatic  countries,  at  the  present 
time,  many  old  customs  of  slaveholding  and  slave  traffic  are  in 

XVII.— (1)  What  was  feared?  (2.)  What  did  the  Government  of  Spain  do?  (S.) 
What  was  an  argument  for  the  enslaving  of  Africans? 

XVIII.— (1)  What  Is  said  of  the  African  slave  trade?  (2.)  What  was  the  conse- 
quence? (3.)  What  did  black  tribes  do?  (4.)  What  became  of  the  purchased 
slaves? 

XIX. — (1-)  What  changes  have  taken  place  during  the  present  century?  (2.) 
Where  are  black  held  as  slaves?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  Brazil?  (1.)  Of  the  United 
States? 

XX.— (!•)  In  What  otiier  countries  do  slavery  and  the  slave  trade  exist? 


Origin  of  Slavery.  233 

force.     (2.)  Wliite  and  black  slaves  are  still  bought  and  sold  in 
market  places  of  Turkey,  Persia  and  Africa. 

XXI. — (1.)  During  the  feudal  ages,  slavery  in  Europe  was 
kuown  as  serfdom, which  was  the  condition  of  the  poorer  class- 
es. (2.)  These  people  were  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  lands 
they  cultivated,  in  the  same  way  as  cattle  or  other  stock  be- 
long to  farms.  (3.)  They  were  transferred  from  master  to 
master,  as  the  ownership  of  soil  passed  from  lord  to  lord.  (4.) 
They  were  called  serfs,  vassals,  and  thralls,  or  villeins,  in  dif- 
ferent countries. 

XXII. — (1.)  The  practice  of  holding  poorer  classes  of 
laboring  peojjle  in  this  condition  exists  at  the  present  day  iu 
several  countries  of  Europe.  (2.)  Until  recently,  serfs  formed 
the  agricultural  and  laboring  population  of  tlie  Russian  em- 
pire. (3.)  Some  estates  of  Russian  lords  contained  thousands 
of  serfs.  (4,)  The  emperor's  serfs  were  counted  by  millions 
(5.)  The  empex'or  of  Russia  liberated  these  multitudes  from 
serfdom,  allowing  them  to  become  free  owners  of  small  farms. 

XXIII. — (1.)  In  Mexico,  and  other  South  American 
states,  a  form  of  slavery  subsists  called  peonaye.  (2.)  It  is  a 
species  of  serfdom  to  which  persons  are  reduced  by  law,  when 
unable  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  creditors.  (3.)  Condemned 
debtors  are  forced  to  labor,  as  peons,  for  their  creditor's  benefit. 
(4.)  They  must  satisfy  his  claims  for  the  original  debt,  and 
for  the  expense  of  their  subsistence  while  laboring.  (5.)  Their 
families  and  children  are  also  held,  to  satisfy  claims  for  ex- 
pense in  their  support. 

(2.)  What  Is  said  of  white  and  black  slaves  t 

XXI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  serfdom  1  (2.)  How  were  feuilal  slaves  regarded  t 
(3.)  How  were  they  transferred  ?    (4  )    Under  what  names  were  fchey  known  ? 

XXII.— (1.)  What  Is  said  of  serfdom  In  modern  days  ?  (.'.)  What  of  serfs  la 
Ku^sia  ?  (3.)  What  did  some  largo  estates  contain  ?  (i.)  What  is  said  of  the  Em- 
peiur'b  serfs  ?    (5.)      What  was  done  in  llussia  ? 

XXIII.— What  Is  said  ot peonage  ■?  (2.)  What  is  this  form  of  slavery  ?  (3. )  What 
are  .viexicau  debtors  obligo.l  to  do  ?  (4.)  What  uiuai  they  satisfy?  (5.)  What  ia 
Bald  coucoruiug  their  faiuiiiea  } 


MODERN    MONARCHIES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PERSIAN  AXD  TURKISH  DESPOTISMS. 

I. — (1.)  The  ancient  Persian  despotism  is  now  represented 
by  an  absolute  monarch,  called  a  Shah.  (2.)  He  is  assisted  by  a 
lieutenant,  or  grand  vizier,  and  a  chief  treasurer,  with  subordinate 
governors  and  other  oE&cials. 

II. — (1.)  The  grand  vizier  is  general  of  the  Persian  army  and 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  (2.)  The  chief  treasurer  administers 
internal  affairs  of  the  kingdom,  collecting  revenue  and  selecting 
civil  officers.  (3.)  Both  ministers  are  appointed  by  the  shah,  and 
may  be  taken  from  the  lowest  class  of  people.  (4.)  They  are 
slaves  to  the  will  of  their  master,  and  tyrants  over  all  others. 

III. — (1  )  Under  the  chief  ministers  are  the  sardars,  or  gover- 
nors of  provinces.  (2.)  These  are  usually  members  of  the  shah's 
family,  or  liigh  nobles.  (3.)  Each  appoints  a  lieutenant,  or  hakim, 
and  other  inferior  officers. 

IV. — (1.)  Tiiere  are  two  kinds  of  tribunals  known  in  the  Persian 

I. — (1.)  How  is  ancient  Persian  despotism  now  represented  ?  (2.)  How  is 
the  shah  assisted? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  the  grand  vizier?  (2.)  What  does  the  chief  treasurer  do? 
(3.)  What  is  said  of  these  ministers  '     (4.)  What  is  their  position? 

m. — (1.)  What  officers  are  under  the  ministers?     (2.)  What  are  the  sar* 

diir^?     (3.)  What  does  each  appoint? 

IV. — ;l  )  What  is  said  of  Persian  tribunals? 
234 


.  Persian  and  Turkish  Despotisms.  2'p,^ 

judiciary.  (2.)  One  of  these  decides  all  questions,  according  to  the 
Koran,  or  Mohammedan  scriptures.  (3.)  In  the  other,  judgments 
are  governed  by  the  ancient  Persian  laws  and  traditional  customs 
(4.)  The  population  of  Persia  is  made  up  of  various  races,  compris 
ing  numerous  wandering  tribes,  who  pay  annual  tribute. 

V. (1.)  The  people  of  Persia  are  divided  into  military  tribes 

and  dwellers  in  cities.  (2.)  The  former  are  under  chiefs,  whose 
Bons  are  often  kept  in  the  capital  as  hostages  for  the  fidelity  of  their 
fathers.  (3.)  These  tribes  mainly  continue  to  dwell  in  tents,  in 
the  manner  of  ancient  Persian  clans.  (4.)  The  inhabitants  of 
towns  are  more  or  less  in  a  servile  condition,  according  to  their 
subordination  under  the  royal  princes. 

VI. (1.)  The  ancient  patriarchal  communities  of  Arabians  were 

combined,  as  a  powerful  nation,  under  Mahomet  and  his  successors. 
(2.)  Mahomet  founded  a  monarchy  called  the  Caliphate,  guided  by 
the  precepts  of  the  Koran,  or  religious  revelation,  which  he  com- 
municated. 

VII. — (1.)  The  mouarchs,  called  Caliphs,  who  succeeded  Mahomet, 
ruled  as  hereditary  despots,  restrained  only  by  regulations  of  the 
Koran.  (2.)  They  conquered  Persia,  Syria,  and  several  other 
countries,  and  their  armies  became  famous,  under  the  name  of  Sara- 
cens. (3.)  At  the  time  when  Charlemagne  reigned  over  France, 
the  Saracens  were  very  powerful,  under  a  caliph  named  Haroun 
Alraschid. 

Vni. — (1.)  Saracen  armies  carried  the  religion  of  Mahomet 
wheresoever  they  conquered.  (2.)  They  invaded  Spain,  under  the 
name  of  Moors,  and  held  possession  of  a  great  portion  of  that  coun- 

(2.)  How  are  decisions  made  by  one?  (3.)  How  by  the  other?  (4.)  What  \b 
the  character  of  the  Persian  population  ? 

v.— (1.)  How  are  the  Tersian  people  divided?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  the 
former?  (3.)  What  is  their  mode  of  life?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  towns? 

VI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Arabian  communities?  (2.)  What  did  Mahomet 
fou)id  ? 

VII.— (1.)  What  power  had  tliccaHphs?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  their  con- 
quests?    (3.)  At  what  period  were  Saracens  very  powerful? 

Vni.— (1.)  What  dii  Saracen  armies  do?     (2.)   What  country  did  they  ia- 


236  History  of  Governments. 

try  till  near  the  sixteeuth  century.     (3.)  They  also  subjugated  the 
people  of  ludia  and  other  ancient  nations. 

IX. — (1.)  Under  the  system  of  caliphs,  Saracens  were  ruled 
despotically  by  one  sovereign  and  the  Mohammedan  law.  (2.)  After- 
ward, generals  of  armies  and  governors  of  conquered  provinces  set 
np  as  independent  rulers.  (3.)  Mohammedan  monarchies  were  thus 
organised  in  Egypt,  in  Spain,  and  on  the  coast  of  Africa. 

X. — (1.)  When  the  Saracen  empire  became  divided,  it  was  in- 
vaded by  several  barbarous  tribes  called  Turkomans,  or  Turks,  from 
the  deserts  of  northern  Asia.  (2.)  The  Turks  were  under  leader- 
ship of  a  chief  named  Othman.  (3.)  This  chief  united  the  tribes  in 
a  nation,  adoi:)ted  the  Mohammedan  religion,  and  took  the  name  of 
Sultan.  (4.)  After  his  death,  the  nation,  composed  of  Arabians, 
Saracens  and  Turkomans,  came  to  be  known  as  Ottomans,  or  Turks. 
(5.)  They  extended  their  power  on  every  side,  and  took  possession 
of  Constantinople,  overthrowif>g  the  Roman  empire  of  the  East. 

XI. — (1  )  The  Turkish  government  is  administered  now,  as 
formerly,  under  the  guidance  of  the  religious  code  given  by  Ma- 
homet in  his  Koran.  (2.)  It  extends  over  countries  once  occupied 
by  Carthaginians,  Egyptians,  Ethiopians,  Phoenicians,  Hebrews, 
Arabians,  and  Syrians. 

XII. — (I.)  The  Sultan  of  Turkey  possesses  unlimited  authority 
over  the  persons  and  i)roperty  of  his  subjects.  (2.)  He  is  regarded 
as  head  of  the  national  religion,  and  his  government  is  known  as 
the  Sublime  Porte.  (3.)  He  is  assisted  in  the  administration  of 
public  affairs  by  the  chief  Mufti,  or  high-priest,  and  the  Grand  Vizier, 
or  lieutenant  of  the  empire,  with  a  council  of  ministers. 

vade  ?     (3.)  What  nations  did  they  subjugate  ? 

IX. — (1.)  How  were  Saracens  ruled?  (2.)  What  afterward  took  place? 
(3.)    What  were  organized  ? 

X. — (1.)  By  what  tribes  were  the  Saracens  overrun  ?  (2.)  Who  was  leader 
of  the  Turks?  (3.)  What  did  this  chief  do?  (4.)  What  occurred  after  his 
death?     (5.)   Where  was  Turkish  dominion  extended? 

XI. — (1.)  How  is  the  Turkish  government  administered?  (2.)  Over  what 
countries  does  it  extend? 

XII. — (1.)  What  authority  has  the  sultan?  (2.)  How  is  he  regarded? 
(3.)  By  what  officer?  is  he  assisted? 


Persian   and   Turkish   Despotisms.  237 

XIII.— (1.)  The  chief  ranfti  is  styled  Sheik-ul-Islam,  cr  Priest 
of  Mohammedanism.  (2.)  He  is  head  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
empire,  and  chief  of  magistrates.  (3.)  The  judicial  officers,  or 
magistrates,  are  persons  learned  in  laws  of  the  Koran,  which  direct 
botli  religious  and  social  matters.  (4.)  These  magistrates  are 
called  mollahs,  cadis,  iraauras  and  uleraas. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  grand  vizier  is  chief  of  administrative  affairs, 
whether  foreign  or  domestic.  (2.)  Under  him  are  his  deputies  and 
ministers  of  foreign  affairs,  of  trade,  of  police,  of  agriculture,  of 
religious  institutions,  of  the  home  department,  of  the  revenue,  and 
of  public  works.  (3.)  Each  of  these  ministers  is  appointed  by  the 
sultan,  and  responsible  with  his  life  for  faithfulness.  (4.)  Other 
subordinates  of  the  grand  vizier  take  charge  of  special  matters  of 
administration. 

XV". — (1.)  A  chief  of  military  affairs,  acting  under  the  sultan, 
through  the  grand  vizier,  is  called  the  Seraskier,  or  minister  of 
war.  (2.)  He  has  authority  over  armies  and  their  officers,  and  is 
responsible  for  tiieir  conduct.  (3.)  A  minister  of  marine,  called 
the  Capudan-Pacha,  or  higli  admiral,  superintends  the  naval  forces. 

XVI. — (1.)  All  ministers  of  departments  unite  with  the  vizier  aud 

Shiek-ul-Islam  to  form  the  sultan's  council.  (2.)  This  council  is 
called  the  Divan,  or  ministry  of  state,  but  its  members  are  controlled 
by  the  sultan,  as  they,  in  turn,  control  their  subordinates. 

XVII.— (1.)  Some  large  provinces  of  Turkey  are  under  govern- 
ment of  officers  appointed  directly  by  the  sultan.  (2.)  Others 
preserve  their  own  laws  aud  chiefs,  by  paying  an  annual  tribute  to 

Xni.— (1.)  Wliat  is  the  chief  mufti  styled?  (2.)  What  is  his  position? 
(3.)  Who  are  judicial  officers?     (4.)  What  are  they  called  ? 

XrV. — (1.)  What  is  the  {^rand  vizier ?  ('2.)  What  officers  are  under  him? 
(3  )   What  is  said  of  these  ministers?     (4.)  What  do  other  subordinates  do  ? 

XV.— (1.)  What  is  the  seraskier?  (2.)  What  is  his  authority?  (3.)  What  is 
the  Capudan-Pacha  ? 

XVI. — (1.)  How  is  the  sultan's  council  composed?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  this 
council  ? 

XVII. — (1.)    How   are  large  Turkish  provinces  governed  ?      (2.)  What  do 


238  Histcr)   of  Go\  ernments. 

the  Sublime  Porte.  (3.)  Others  are  possessed  by  wild  tribes,  umler 
military  chiefs,  who  assist  the  Turkish  government  iu  time  of  war. 
(4.)  Others  are  inhabited  by  pastoral  communities,  with  patriarchal 
forms  of  authority. 


CHAPTER   II. 

CHINESE     PATRIARCHAL     DESPOTISM. 

I. — (1.)  The  Chinese  nation  comprises  an  immense  collection  of 
families  and  tribes  blended  together  as  a  people.  (2.)  The  two  na- 
tional classes  are  the  original  Chinese  inhabitants,  and  their  later 
conquerors,  the  Tartars.  (3.)  The  sovereigns  proceed,  by  hereditary 
succession,  from  the  chief  Tartar  family. 

II. —  (1.)  The  patriarchal  system  of  government,  as  practised  in 
wandering  savage  tribes,  expanded,  in  China,  with  the  growth  of 
population.  (2.)  Authority  is  measured  throughout  all  the  empire 
by  regular  steps,  descending  from  the  sovereign  downward. 

III. — (1.)  There  is  no  hereditary  aristocracy  in  China,  except  the 
family  of  the  sovereign.  (2.)  Whatever  officers  are  appointed  from 
time  to  time,  to  administer  the  laws,  constitute  an  aristocracy  while 
they  hold  their  offices.  (3.)  These  officers  are  taken,  according  to 
personal  merit,  from  the  people  at  large. 

IV. — (1.)  The  most  respectable  people  in  China  are  those  who 
have  studied  and  become  educated  in  all  matters  known  among 
them.     (2.)  Accordingly   as   a  youth   or   man  gives   evidence   of 

others  preserve?  (-3.)  How  are  other  provinces  possessed?  (4.)  How  are 
others  inhabited  ? 

I. — (1.)  What  does  the  Chinese  nation  comprise?  (2.)  What  are  the  na- 
tional classes?     (3.)  What  family  furnishes  the  sovereigns? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  patriarchal  sjstem  ?  (2.)  How  is  authority 
arranged  ? 

m.— (1.)  What  is  said  regarding  aristocracy?  (2.;  Who  constitute  a  tem 
porary  aristocracy?     (3.)  Whence  are  these  officers  taken? 

IV. — (1)  Who  are  the  most  respectable  Chinese  ?  (2.)  How  is  an  indivi 
dual  regarded  in  China? 


Chinese  Patriarchal  Despotism.  239 

talent  and  learning,  he  is  looked  upon  as  worthy  of  advancement 
and  consideration. 

v. — (1.)  The  lowest  class  of  Chinese  population  are  the  slaves,  who 
have  no  rights  or  privileges.  (2.)  Slaves  are  persons  who  have  beea 
condemned  to  servitude  during  life,  for  ofiFeuces,  and  captives  or 
rebels,  bought  and  sold.  (3.)  The  poorest  and  uneducated  people 
of  the  empire,  who  pay  their  taxes  by  public  service,  are  in  the  con- 
dition of  slaves. 

VI. — (1.)  The  domestic  servants  of  Chinese  families  are  gene- 
rally slaves.  (2.)  Masters  are  permitted  to  have  absolute  power 
over  them. 

VII. — (1.)  The  Chinese  nation  is  divided  socially  into  four  ranks 
or  orders.  (2.)  In  the  first  place  is  the  learned,  or  literary  class  ; 
next,  the  cultivators,  or  agricultural  population  ;  thirdly,  the  arti- 
ficers, or  manufacturing  class  ;  and  fourthly,  the  merchants. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  only  marked  superiority  is  that  held  by  the 
learned  order,  from  whose  members  ofiQcers  of  government  and  ma- 
gistrates are  usually  appointed.  (2.)  There  is  an  exclusive  class  of 
courtiers,  who  claim  hereditary  distinction,  and  are  called  "  the 
ancient  tribe."  (3.)  They  have  no  authority  except  in  matters  of 
ceremonial  about  the  royal  palaces. 

IX. — (1.)  AH  appointments  to  oflBce  in  China  emanate  from  the 
supreme  government.  (2.)  Office-holders  comprise  governors,  ma- 
gistrates, and  all  other  officials.  (3.)  They  are  selected  on  account 
of  superior  learning  or  talent,  without  regard  to  birth  or  property. 

X. — (1.)  The  supreme  head  of  the  Chinese  state  is  the  emperor, 

V. — (1.)  Who  constitute  the  lowest  class  of  Chinese  ?  (2.)  What  are  the' 
slaves?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  poorest  people? 

VI. — (1.)  What  are  Cliinese  servants?     (2.)   What  power  have  masters? 

VII. — (1.)  How  is  the  Chinese  nation  socially  divided?  (2.)  What  arc 
these  ranks? 

Vm. — (1.)  Which  is  the  superior  order?  (2.)  What  exclusive  class  is  men- 
tioned ?     (3.)  What  authority  have  they? 

IX. — (1.)  Whence  do  all  appoiutments  emanate?  (2.)  What  do  office-hold- 
ers comprise  ?     (3.)   On  what  considerations  are  they  selected  ? 

X. — (1.)  Who  is  supreme  head  or  patriarch  of  the  Chinese  state? 


240  History  of  Governments. 

or  patriarchal  despot.  (2.)  He  is  worshipped  with  divine  honors, 
and  considered  to  be  present  at  the  same  time  in  every  part  of  his 
dominions.  (3.)  The  number  of  his  subjects  is  estimated  to  be 
more  than  three  hundred  millions  of  souls. 

XI. — (1.)  The  emperor  is  supposed  to  worship  heaven,  and  the 
people  pay  worship  to  the  emperor,  as  high-priest  of  their  nation. 
(2.)  No  person  whatever  can  pass  the  gate  of  a  royal  palace  ou 
horseback,  or  in  a  vehicle.  (3.)  Even  the  vacant  throne,  or  a 
screen  before  it,  is  regarded  as  an  object  of  worship.  (4.)  The  par- 
ticular walks  used  by  the  sovereign,  in  his  palace  grounds,  must  not 
be  trodden  over  by  any  other  foot. 

XII. — (1.)  The  emperor  possesses  power  to  name  his  successor 
in  government.  (2.)  His  seal  on  all  documents  makes  them  sacred, 
and  bis  dispatches  are  received  by  the  most  distant  governors  with 
incense  and  prostration  of  the  body. 

Xm. — (1.)  AH  proclamations,  orders,  and  laws,  after  being 
issued  by  t  le  emperor,  are  published  in  an  official  paper,  called  the 
"  Pekin  Gazette."  (2.)  The  sovereign's  letters,  and  all  reports 
from  subordinate  officials,  appear  in  this  gazette. 

XIV". — (?.)  As  high-priest  of  the  nation,  the  emperor  and  those 
appointed  by  him  for  the  purpose,  perform  all  religious  rites  of 
prayer  and  sacrifice.  (2.)  This  is  a  distinguishing  feature  of  the 
patriarcha'  mode  of  government  from  earliest  times.  (3.)  All 
religious  temples  and  priests  in  China  are  supported  by  the  inhabit- 
ants of  districts  to  which  they  belong. 

(2.)  What    is    his    station?     (3.)   What  is  the  number  of  his  subjects? 

XI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  emperor's  sacred  character?  (2.)  What  pecu- 
liar respect  is  paid  to  liim?  (3.)  What  other  marks  of  veneration  are  men- 
tioned?    (4.)   What  is  said  of  his  garden  walks? 

Xn. — (1.)  How  is  the  succession  of  emperors  regulated?  (2.)  What  is  said 
of  the  emperor's  seal  and  writings? 

XIII. — (1.)  How  are  laws  made  known  in  China?  (2.)  What  other  docu- 
ments appear  in  this  gazette? 

XIV. —  (1.)  Who  perform  religious  ceremonies  in  China?  (2.)  What  is  re- 
marked concerning  this  practice  ?  (3.)  How  are  temples  and  priests  sustained 
in  China  ? 


Chinese   Patriarchal  Despotism.  241 

.  XV. — (1.)  The  emperor  appoints,  as  assistants,  a  ministry,  called 
the  Interior  Council  Chamber.  (2.)  His  chief  counsellors  are  four 
in  number — two  Tartars  and  two  Chinese.  (3.)  The  Tartars  are 
superior,  because  the  emperor  himself  belongs  to  a  Tartar  family  or 
dynasty. 

XVI. — (1.)  Below  the  ministers  area  number  of  assessors,  or 
treasurers  of  the  empire,  who  constitute  with  them  a  council  of 
state.  (2.)  Principal  ministers  are  selected  by  the  emperor,  from  a 
great  national  institution  of  learning,  called  the  Imperial  College  of 
the  Han-lin. 

XVII, —  (1.)  The  emperor  has  a  secret  council,  formed  of  special 
ministers,  selected  on  important  occasions.  (2.)  From  this  body  he 
appoints  commissioners  and  envoys,  to  settle  difficulties  in  the  empire, 
or  with  other  nations. 

XVIII. — (1.)  Under  the  ministers  are  boards,  or  departments, 
having  care  of  various  details  of  pu!)lic  business.  (2.)  These  boards 
are  known  as  the  Loo-poo,  or  Six  Boards. 

XIX. — (1.)  The   Loo-poo  comprise,   first,  a  Board  of  Appoint- 
ments, which  oversees  th(!  conduct  of  all  civil  offices  ;  secondly,  a 
Board  of  Revenue,  regulating  all  money  matters  ;  third,  a  Board  of 
Rites  and  Ceremonies  ;  fourth,  a  Military  Boai  1  ;  fiftn,  a  Supreme 
Court  of  Police  matters  ;  sixth,  a  Board  of  Pub  Jc  Works. 

XX. (1.)   Another  department   of   government   is    called    the 

office  for  foreign  affairs.  (2.)  The  heads  of  this  department  are 
always  Tartars.  (3.)  It  takes  charge  of  treaties  ?ud  government 
business  with  other  nations. 


XV.— (1.)  Who  are  assistants  of  the  emperor  in  government?     (?     '^^Kat 
is  said  of  ilia  chief  counsellors  ?     (8.)  Who  are  superior  ? 

XVI.— (1.)  What  subordinates  arc  mentioned  ?     (2.)  Whence  are  pnncipal 
ministers  taken  ? 

XVIL (1.)  What  other  assistants  has  the  emperor?     (2.)  What  does  he 

appoint  from  the  secret  council? 

XVin. (1.)  What  bodies  are  under  the  ministers?     (2.)  What  are  these 

boards  called  ? 

XIX.— (1.)  What  are  the  different  boards  comprised  in  the  Loo-poo  ? 

XX.— (1.)  What  is  another  department  called?     (2.)  What  are  the  head*  ««r 
this  department?     (3.)  Of  what  has  this  department  charge  ? 

II 


242  Histor}'  of  Governments. 

XXI. — (1.)  There  is  a  department  or  ofSce  called  the  Board  of 
Censors  or  Examiners.  (2.)  About  fifty  principal  officers  compose 
this  board.  (3.)  These  censors  are  sent  to  diflferent  parts  of  the 
empire,  to  examine  into  the  way  public  business  is  conducted,  in- 
spect the  people,  and  make  reports  to  the  emperor  concerning  all 
they  ascertain.  (4.)  They  are  privileged  to  present  any  advice  or 
remonstrance  to  the  emperor,  without  danger  of  losing  their  lives. 

XXII. — (1.)  Chinese  provinces  are  under  charge  of  special  rulers, 

appointed  by  the  imperial  government.  (2  )  The  head  officer  of  a 
single  province  is  called  a  governor.  (3.)  That  of  two  or  more 
provinces  is  known  as  a  general-governor,  or  viceroy. 

XXIII. — (1.)  In  each  provincial  government,  there  is  a  chief 
judge,  who  has  special  charge  of  criminal  matters.  (2.)  There  is 
also  a  treasurer,  who  examines  into  civil  suits,  and  takes  charge  of 
royal  revenues  in  his  province. 

XXIV. — (1.)  Separate  cities  and  districts  of  every  province  are 
under  supervision  of  respective  magistrates,  who  rank  according  to 
the  places  they  govern.  (2.)  The  total  number  of  civil  magistrates 
in  China  is  estimated  to  be  fourteen  thousand. 

XXV". — (1.)  There  is  an  official  list  called  the  Red  Book,  printed 
quarterly,  by  authority.  (2.)  It  contains  the  name,  birthplace,  and 
particulars  relating  to  every  office-holder  in  the  empire.  (3.)  All 
changes  made  in  office  are  regulated  by  this  list. 

XXVI. — (1.)  No  person  is  allowed  to  act  as  magistrate  in  the 
province  where  he  was  born  or  belongs.     (2.)  Every  public  officer 

XXI. — (1.)  What  other  department  is  mentioued  ?  (2.)  Pow  many  officers 
compose  it?  (3.)  What  is  the  business  of  these  censors ?  (4.)  What  privilege 
iiave  they  ? 

XXU. — (1.)  What  are  provinces  under?  (2.)  What  is  a  chief  provincial 
officer  called  ?     (3.)   What  title  has  a  ruler  of  two  or  more  provinces  ? 

XXm. — (1)  What  other  magistrate  is  placed  in  each  province  ?  (2.)  What 
imperial  officer  is  there  stationed  ? 

XXIV. — (1.)  How  are  separate  cities  and  districts  governed?  (2.)  How 
many  civil  magistrates  are  there  in  China  ? 

XXV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  an  official  list?  (2.)  What  does  the  Red  Book 
f.-'.^t.ain?     (3.)  What  are  regulated  by  this  list? 

XXVI. — (1.)   What  restriction  regulates  magistrates?     (2.)  What  changes 


Chinese   Patriarchal  Despotism.  243 

is  clianged  periodically,  so  as  to  prevent  his  permanent  connection 
with  any  inhabitants  of  the  district,  (3.)  A  son,  brother,  or  other 
near  relation,  is  not  allowed  to  hold  office  under  a  corresponding 
connection. 

XXVII. — (1.)  Once  in  three  years,  the  viceroy  or  governor  of 
every  province  makes  a  special  report  to  the  Board  of  iVppoint- 
ments  at  Pekin.  (2.)  In  this  report  he  mentions  every  officer 
under  his  jurisdiction  by  name,  with  remarks  on  character  and  con- 
duct, as  furnished  by  the  immediate  superior  of  each  man. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  Accordingly  as  an  official  is  mentioned  favor- 
ably or  otherwise,  in  the  governor's  report,  he  may  be  expected  to 
rise  or  be  degraded  so  many  degrees.  (2.)  Every  magistrate  is 
obliged  to  state  publicly  how  many  steps  he  has  been  raised  or  de- 
graded while  holding  office. 

XXIX. — (1.)  Chinese  officials  are  provided  with  a  regular  code 
of  laws  for  their  guidance.  (2.)  This  code  is  divided  into  six  clas- 
sifications, corresponding  to  th^  six  boards,  or  central  departments 
of  government,  called  Loo-poo. 

XXX. — (1.)  The  first  classification  relates  to  the  administration 
of  civil  offices.  (2.)  It  is  comj)rised  iu  two  books,  one  treating  of 
the  system  of  government,  another  of  the  conduct  of  officers. 

XXXI. — (I.)  The  second  division  of  Chinese  laws  relates  to 
statistics  and  money  matters,  and  contains  seven  books.  (2.)  The 
first  discourses  of  tlie  enrollment  of  the  people  ;  the  second,  of  lands 
and  tenements  ;  the   third,   of  marriage  statistics  ;  the  fourth,  of 

are  regularly  made  ?  (3.)  What  persons  are  not  allowed  to  hold  office  under 
each  other  ? 

XXVII. — (1.)  Whiit  is  done  once  in  three  years?  (2.)  What  does  the  gov- 
ernor mention  in  his  report? 

XXVm. — (1.)  What  is  the  result  of  mentioning  an  official  in  his  superior's 
report?     (2.)   What  is  every  magistrate  obliged  to  state  ? 

XXIX. — (I.)  With  what  are  Chinese  officials  provided?  (2.)  How  is  this 
code  classified? 

XXX. — (1.)  To  what  does  the  first  classification  relate  ?  (2.)  What  is  said 
of  its  books  ? 

XXXI. — (1.)  To  what  does  the  second  division  relate?  (2.)  Of  wha/  do  it« 
^ooks  treat  ? 


244  History  of  GovernmenLS 

public  property:  the  fifth,  of  duties  and  customs  ;  the  sixth,  of  pri- 
vate property;  the  seventh,  of  sales  and  markets. 

XXXII. — (1.)  The  third  division  of  the  code  is  in  two  books. 
(2.)  The  first  regards  sacred  rites  ;  the  second  concerns  miscella- 
neous observances. 

XXXIII. — (1.)  The  fourth  classification  of  laws  relates  to  mili- 
tary matters,  in  five  books.  (2.)  First,  the  protection  of  the  em- 
peror's palace  ;  second,  army  regulations  ;  third,  protection  of  the 
frontiers  ;  fourth,  horses  and  cattle  of  the  army  ;  fifth,  public  posts 
and  expresses. 

XXXIV. — (1.)  The  fifth  division  of  the  code  occupies  eleven 
books,  and  is  devoted  to  criminal  laws.  (2.)  It  specifies  all  offences, 
as  treason,  robbery,  theft,  murder,  homicide,  sacrilege,  quarrelling, 
incendiarism,  and  other  breaches  of  the  law. 

XXXV. (1.)  The  sixth  and  last  classification  treats  of  public 

works,  under  supervision  of  the  boarc^  at  Pekin.  (2.)  Its  two  books 
regulate  all  matters  concerning  public  buildings,  and  public  roacjs. 

XXXVI. — (1.)  Patriarchal,  or  parental,  authority  is  recognized 
through  all  ranks  of  the  people.  (2.)  Fathers  have,  to  some  de- 
gree, the  power  of  life  and  death  over  their  children.  (3.)  If  they 
kill  them  designedly,  they  are  punished  by  only  a  year's  imprison- 
ment. (4.)  If  they  kill  them  after  having  received  a  blow  from 
their  hands,  the  law  considers  it  justifiable. 

XXXVII. (1.)  Chinese  modes  of  punishment  for  capital  crimes 


XXXn.— (1.)  How  many  books  has  the  third  division?  (2.)  Of  what  do 
they  treat? 

XXXIII.— (1.)  To  what  does  the  fourth  classification  relate  ?     (2.)  What  are 

its  five  subjects  ? 
XXXIV.— (1.)    What   is  said    of    the    fifth    division?     (2.)  What   does   it 

specify  '■ 

XXXV.— (1  )  Of  what  does  the  sixth  classification  treat?     (2.)  What  do  its 

books  regulate  ? 

XXXVI.— (1.)  What  authority  is  universally  recognized  ?  (2.)  What  power 
iave  fathers?  (3.)  What  is  the  penalty  for  killing  children?  (4.)  What  ia 
said  of  killing  children  as  punishment  for  abusing  parents? 

XXXVn.— (.1.)  What  is  said  of  capital  punishments  in  the  Chinese  empire  » 


Chinese  Patriarchal  Despotism.  245 

are  very  severe.  (2.)  Beating  with  the  bamboo  is  the  most  common 
penalty  for  all  offences  not  worthy  of  death.  (3.)  The  penalty  of 
striking,  or  even  cursing,  a  parent,  is  death. 

XXXVIII. — (1.)  The  vital  principle  of  Chinese  government  is 
submission  to  parental  authority  and  to  the  written  code.  (2.)  The 
laws  are  taught  to  every  child  in  school  and  at  home. 

XXXIX.— (1.)  The  sacred  books  of  China  teacli,  tiiat  from  tiie 
knowledge  of  oneself  must  proceed  the  proper  family  government, 
and  from  the  government  of  a  family  must  proceed  that  of  a  pro- 
vince or  kingdom. 

XL. — (1.)  The  emperor  is  called  father  of  his  empire  ;  a  gover- 
nor is  called  father  of  his  province  ;  a  mandarin,  or  city  magistrate, 
is  considered  father  of  the  city  over  which  he  presides.  (2.)  The 
father  of  every  family  is  held  to  be  the  responsible  ruler  of  his  own 
household. 

XIjI. — (1.)  In  this  manner,  the  principle  of  obedience  to  supe- 
riors is  recognized  through  all  grades  of  the  people.  (2.)  Children 
obey  and  reverence  their  parents  ;  the  young  respect  the  aged  ; 
the  uneducated  pay  deference  to  the  educated.  (3.)  All  ranks 
unite  in  looking  up  to  rulers  set  over  them,  and  to  the  emperor  as 
head  and  father  of  all. 

XLII. — (1.)  The  people  of  Chinese  communities  sometimes  hold 
public  u}eeting's  for  the  purpose  of  addressing  their  magistrates. 
(2.)  Honors  are  shown  to  worthy  officials  by  a  public  presenta- 
tion of  some  testimonial  when  he  retires  from  office. 

(2.)  What  of  minor  punishments  ?  (3.)  What  i8  the  legal  penalty  for  abusing 
a  parent  ? 

XXXVIII. — (1.)  What  is  the  vital  principle  of  Chinese  government.  (2.) 
What  is  said  of  the  laws  ? 

XXXIX.— (1.)  What  do  Chinese  sacred  books  teach  ? 

XL. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  title  of  father?  (2.)  What  is  each 
family  father  held  to  be  ? 

Xlil. — (1.)  What  principle  rs  in  this  manner  recognized?  (2.)  Wliat  i.s 
said  regarding  the  practice  of  such  obedience  ?  (3.)  In  wliat  do  all  ranks 
unite  ? 

Xlill.— (1.)  What  popular  privileges  have  the  Chinese?  (2.)  How  do  thej 
bonor  worthy  magistrates  ? 


246  History  of  Governments. 

XLIII. — (1.)  Education  is  strictly  enjoined  upon  all  cbildreu 
and  youth,  and  incentives  are  offered  for  its  acquisition.  (2.)  A 
book,  called  the  Book  of  Sacred  Instructions,  is  read  in  public  by 
magistrates,  upon  days  corresponding  to  the  new  and  full  moon. 
(3.)  It  contains  sixteen  discourses,  teaching  the  duties  of  children 
to  parents,  juniors  to  elders,  and  the  people  to  their  governors. 

XLIV. — (1.)  The  penal  laws  of  China  are  all  printed  in  cheap 
form,  for  general  circulation.  (2.)  Every  person  is  expected  to 
become  familiar  with  their  operation,  and  act  accordingly. 

XLV. — (1.)  Parents  of  children  who  offend  against  the  laws 
are  liable  to  be  held  responsible  and  punished.  (2.)  They  are  per- 
mitted to  share  in  any  honors  conferred  on  their  sons  for  the  per- 
formance of  meritorious  actions. 

XLVI. — (1.)  Every  town  and  village  in  China  has  a  place  of 
public  instruction,  and  wealthy  families  employ  private  teachers  for 
their  children.  (2.)  The  chief  ground  of  selection  to  office,  and 
promotion  in  rank,  is  the  possession  of  cultivated  talent. 

XLVII. — (1.)  In  every  city  and  district  there  are  periodical 
examinations  of  students  belonging  to  all  classes  of  society.  (2.) 
The  poorest  persons,  as  well  as  the  wealthiest,  may  present  claims 
for  government  employment.  (3.)  This  makes  every  Chinese  youth 
honorably  ambitious  to  distinguish  himself  by  study. 

XLVIII. — (1.)  At  the  public  examinations,  students  are  allowed 
to  display  their  capacity  and  attainments.  (2.)  If  government 
cannot    appoint    all    to   official    places,  it    distributes    honors,   and 

XT.TTT (1  )  What  is  said  of  education  in  Cliiaa  »     (2.)   What  book  is  read 

in  public  ?     (3.)  What  does  this  book  contain? 

XLIV.— (1.)  What  laws  are  generally  circulated?  (2.)  What  is  expected 
from  every  person  ? 

XLV.— (1.)  What  responsibility  have  parents  ?  (2.)  What  distinctions  are 
awarded  them  ? 

XLVL— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Chinese  schools?  (2.)  What  is  the  chief 
ground  for  selection  to  otiice  ? 

XLVII.— (1.)  What  examinations  are  made?  (2.)  Who  may  claim  to  bo 
candidates' for  official  appointments?     (3.)  What  is  the  efifect  of  this? 

XLVIII. (1.)  What  are  students  allowed?     (2.)  What  does  t'le  g0  7eru- 

meut  do  lor  worthy  students? 


Chinese   Patriarchal  Despotism.  247 

promises  future  employment  to  the  meritorious  candidates  eligible 
to  preferment,  either  civil  or  military. 

XLIX.— (1.)  Civil  officers  in  China  are  treated  with  greater 
consideration  than  military  ones.  (2.)  At  public  festivals,  the 
former  precede  the  latter. 

L._(l.)  AH  the  military  of  the  Chinese  empire  are  under  super- 
vision of  the  military  board  at  Pekin.  (2.)  This  board  musters  the 
forces,  whilst  a  board  of  revenue  furnishes  funds,  and  a  board  of 
public  works  provides  supplies. 

Li._(l.)  The  emperor's  guard  is  composed  of  Tartars,  in  eight 
divisions,  of  ten  thousand  soldiers  each.  (2.)  The  rest  of  the  army 
is  made  up  of  Chinese  regulars  and  the  militia  of  provinces,  amount- 
ing in  all  to  about  three-quarters  of  a  million  of  men.  (3.)  The 
militia  are  engaged  in  other  occupations,  but  receive  a  small  sum 
per  month  for  their  service  under  arms. 

Lil. (1.)    The   highest  military  rank  in  China  is  that  of   a 

Tartar  general.  (2.)  Subordinate  officers  receive  promotion  ac- 
cording to  desert,  from  the  lowest  grade.  (3.)  Officers  and  privates 
are  alike  subject  to  punishment  with  the  bamboo  by  those  sec  over 
them,  for  oifences  against  regulations. 

LIII._(1.)  Tlie  theory  of  Chinese  government  is  despotic, 
through  every  grade,  from  the  emperor  down  to  the  lowest  officer. 
(2.)  The  people  have  a  saying,  that  "  the  emperor  is  a  charioteer— 
the  royal  ministers  are  his  hands,  officers  below  them  are  his  reins, 
laws  are  the  bits,  and  punishment  the  lash."  (3.)  The  whole 
people  are  in  this  manner  kept  in  harness  and  driven  by  higher 
authority. 

XLIX.— (1.)  How  are  civil  officers  treated  ?     (2.)  Uow  is  this  shown? 

L._{1.)  What  is  said  of  Chinese  miUtary?  (2.)  What  authorities  provide 
for  mustering  and  support  of  soldiers '! 

LI.— (1.)  Of  what  material  ia  the  emperor's  guard  composed?  (2.)  Wha^ 
makes  up  the  rest  of  the  army  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  militia  ? 

LU.— (1.)  What  is  the  highest  military  rank  in  China  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of 
subordinate  officers  ?     (3.)  To  what  are  all  subordinates  subject  ? 

Lin.— (1.)  What  is  the  theory  of  Chinese  government?  (2.)  What  is  a 
popular  saying  ?     (3.)   What  is  remarked  concerning  this? 


CHAPTER  CI. 

JAPANESE      MILITARY     DESPOTISM. 

L — (1.)  The  governmeut  of  Japan  k  a  despotism,  hereditary  io 
the  families  of  two  sovereigns.  (2.)  One  of  the  sovereigns  is  spirit- 
Qal,  and  the  other  military,  head  of  the  empire. 

II. — (1.)  The  spiritual  sovereign  is  called  a  Mikado,  and  resides 
in  a  sacred  city  from  which  be  never  removes.  (2.)  He  is  wor- 
shipped with  divine  honors,  as  one  of  the  forms  of  the  god  Boodh. 
(3.)  His  council  and  officers  superintend  religion  and  education. 

III. — (1.)  The  temporal  and  military  sovereign  is  called  the 
Siogun.  (2.)  He  commands  the  armies,  appoints  subordinate  rulers, 
and  resides  at  the  capital  city,  Jeddo.  (3.)  The  empire  under  him 
is  divided  into  eight  circles,  or  governmenis.  (4.)  These  are  sub- 
divided into  provinces  and  districts,  ruled  through  officers  appointed 
by  the  siogun. 

IV. — (1.)  Every  province,  or  large  district,  has  two  governors, 
each  ruling  six  months  of  the  year.  (2.)  Whilst  one  governor  is 
at  his  post,  the  other  remains  in  Jeddo,  and  receives  regular  reports 
from  his  colleague.  (3.)  Each  governor  has  two  secretaries,  who 
control,  by  turns  of  six  months,  the  subordinate  affairs  of  a  province. 
(4.)  Wiien  a  governor  and  his  secretaries  go  to  their  posts,  they 
are  obliged  to  leave  their  families  behind,  in  Jeddo,  as  hostages  for 
their  fidelity. 

I. — (1.)  What  is  the  government  of  Japan?  (2.)  What  is  the  distiuctioa 
between  the  two  sovereigns? 

11. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  spiritual  sovereign  ?  (2.)  What  is  his  sacred 
characier  ?     (3.)   What  do  his  officers  superintend  ? 

III.— (1.)  What  is  the  siogun  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  the  sovereign?  (3.) 
How  is  the  empire  divided  under  him?  (-t.)  What  subdivisions  are  men- 
tioned ? 

IV. — (1.)  How  is  every  province  ruled?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  the  governors? 
(3.)  What  of  the  secretaries  ?     (4.)  What  are  tlie  governors  obliged  to  do  ? 


Japanese  Military  Despotism.  249 

V. — (1.)  The  princes  of  the  empire  are  the  highest  officers  uuder 
the  siogun.  (2.)  Each  is  compelled  to  spend  half  the  time  in  his 
circle  of  government,  and  half  the  time  in  Jeddo.  (3)  He  is  ob- 
liged to  leave  his  family  as  security,  whenever  he  is  absent  from  the 
capital . 

VI. — (1.)  Governors  are  controlled  by  fixed  orders,  regulating 
their  hours  of  sleeping,  exercise  and  aranseraeut.  (2.)  Their  actions 
are  strictly  watched  by  spies  placed  near  them  by  the  government. 
(3.)  The  royal  princes  are  watched  in  tiie  same  nnanner  when  on 
their  rural  domains.  (4.)  If  two  princes  own  neighboring  estates, 
they  are  forbidden  to  reside  on  them  at  the  same  time,  lest  they 
may  conspire  together. 

VIL — (1.)  Princes  are  compelled  to  furnish  money  from  their 
domains,  to  pay  all  expenses  of  the  Japanese  army.  (2.)  This 
drains  their  resources,  and  keeps  them  without  the  means  of  becom- 
ing dangerous  to  government. 

VIII. — (1.)  Next  in  authority  to  the  princes,  are  lords  who 
govern  smaller  domains,  and  are  controlled  in  the  same  manner  as 
their  superiors.  (2.)  Under  the  lords  are  hereditary  burgesses, 
who  preside  in  the  form  of  councils,  over  cities  and  large  towns. 
(3.)  Under  these  rulers  are  ottonas,  who  have  charge  of  a  ward  or 
street  of  the  city.  (4.)  A  street  of  any  city  in  Japan  is  a  certain 
number  of  yards  in  length,  shut  by  gates  at  both  ends,  and  contains 
about  a  hundred  houses. 

IX. — (1.)  Under  the  ottonas,  or  street  governors,  are  overseers 
called  kasiras,  who  have  each  charge  of  five  houses  and  their  resi- 

V. — (1.)  Who  are  highest  officers  under  the  siogun?  (2.)  What  is  each 
compelled  to  do?     (3.)  What  security  must  be  given? 

VI. — (1.)  How  are  governors  controlled?  (2.)  How  are  their  actions  ob- 
served ?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  royal  princes  ?  (4.)  What  are  princes  for- 
bidden? 

Vn. — (1.)  What  aro  princes  compelled  to  furnish  ?  (2.)  What  effect  does 
this  have  ? 

Vin. — (1.)  WHio  are  next  in  authority  to  the  princes?  (2.)  Who  are  under 
the  lords?  (3.)  Who  are  next  in  authority?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  a  Japanese 
street  ? 

DC. — (1.)   Who  are  <inder  the  ottonas? 

11* 


250  History  of  Governments. 

dents,  (2.)  In  time  of  clanger  every  house  is  required  to  furni>h 
one  man  as  a  soldier.  (3.)  Five  men  form  a  troop,  under  command 
of  the  kasira  ;  twenty  troops  march  under  the  ottona.  (4.)  This 
constitutes  a  militia,  ready  at  any  emergency. 

X. — (1.)  Every  head  of  a  family  is  responsible  for  his  neighbors 
and  associates  ;  and  each  of  five  adjoining  householders  is  holden  for 
another,  and  must  report  his  conduct  to  the  kasira.  (2.)  If  he  fails 
to  do  this,  he  becomes  liable  to  punishment,  by  fine,  stripes,  or  im- 
prisonment in  his  own  house. 

XI. — (1.)  Imprisonment  of  this  kind  is  effected  by  boarding  up 
doors  and  windows  for  a  hundred  days,  more  or  less.  (2.)  While 
imprisoned,  the  householder  is  ■  not  allowed  to  shave,  work  at  his 
trade,  or  receive  pay  for  any  office  he  holds. 

XII. — (1.)  No  Japanese  householder  of  the  common  people  is 
permitted  to  remove  from  one  house  or  street  to  another,  without 
a  certificate  of  good  conduct  from  his  neighbors.  (2.)  He  must  like- 
wise obtain  permission  to  dwell  among  other  neighbors. 

XIII.— (1.)  Japanese  population  is  divided  into  several  castes, 
or  classes.  (2.)  It  is  considered  the  duty  of  every  man  to  remain 
in  the  class  wherein  he  was  born. 

XrV.— (1.)  The  highest  class  is  that  of  the  princes.  (2.)  The 
second  is  that  of  noblemen,  who  hold  lands  by  performing  military 
service  for  a  prince,  or  for  the  siogun  himself.  (3.)  They  do  this 
by  furuishing  a  certain  number  of  soldiers,  according  to  the  value 
of  the  estates  they  hold.     (4.)  The  third  class  is  the  priesthood, 


(2.)  What  is  required  in  time  of  danger?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  five  nieu, 
and  of  twenty  troops?    (4.)  What  does  this  constitute? 

X.— (1.)  What  is  said  regarding  responsioility  ?  (2.)  What  is  the  penalty 
for  offending  against  this  rule  ? 

XL— (1.)  How  is  such  imprisonment  effected?  (2.)  How  is  a  prisoner 
otherwise  restrained  ? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  is  a  Japanese  householder  not  permitted  to  do?  (2.)  What 
must  he  obtain? 

Xm.— (1.)  How  is  Japanese  population  divided?     (2.)  What  is  considered 

a  dutv  ? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  is  the  highest  class  in  Japan  ?  (2.)  What  is  the  second  ? 
(3.)  How  is  this  service  performed  ?     (4.)  What  is  the  third  class  of  Japanese  ? 


Japanese  Military  Despotism.  251 

whose  wives  are  priestesses.  (5.)  Tliese  families  live  in  religious 
houses  near  the  temples  of  Boodh.  (6.)  The  priests  administer 
religious  rites,  grant  absolution  for  sins,  and  are  supported  by  con- 
tributions from  pilgrims  and  other  worshippers. 

XV. — (1.)  The  fourth  class  comprises  the  military,  and  is  com- 
posed of  the  vassals  belonging  to  estates,  equipped  and  provided  by 
tlie  lords  and  princes.  (2.)  The  siogun  has  100,000  foot,  and 
20,000  horse  soldiers  in  his  private  service. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  first  four  classes  of  Japanese  are  regarded  as 
of  higher  rank  than  the  second  four.  (2.)  Of  the  latter,  the  first 
comprises  the  most  respectable  citizens,  such  as  inferior  officials, 
physicians,  and  scientific  men.  (3.)  The  next  is  composed  of  mer- 
chants and  wealthy  shopkeepers,  who  are  restricted  by  law  from 
buying  luxuries,  even  with  their  own  money,  and  prohibited  from 
showing  any  ostentation  of  manners.  (4.)  The  seventh  class  con- 
sists of  small  tradesmen,  mechanics,  artists,  and  all  manufacturers, 
except  leather-dressers. 

XVII. — (1.)  Tije  eighth  numbers  all  day  laborers  and  peasants, 
the  latter  being  serfs  belonging  to  estates,  and  is  much  degraded. 
(2.)  A  ninth  class  is  sometimes  reckoned,  comprising  tanners,  cur- 
riers, and  all  connected  with  the  leather  trade,  which  is  considered 
to  be  an  unclean  business.  (3.)  Tiiese  are  outcasts  from  society, 
not  being  permitted  to  enter  the  houses  of  other  men,  and  only 
allowed  to  act  in  cities  .as  executioners  and  jailers. 

XVIIL— (1.)  The  mikado,  or  spiritual  sovereign,  is  a  type  of 
divine  power,  dwelling  in  his  sacred  city.  (2.)  He  is  allowed  twelve 
wives,  and  hundreds  of  servants.     (3.)  Every  article  he  uses  is  de- 

(5.)  Where  do  the  priest-families  reside  ?     (6.)  What  is  said  of  the  priests  ? 

XV. — (1.)  What  do  the  fourth  cluss  in  Japan  comprise?  (2.)  What  does 
the  sioguii's  military  force  number  V 

XVI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  fir.«t  four  Japanese  classes?  (2.)  What 
does  the  first  of  the  lower  division  comprise  ?  (8.)  IIow  is  the  next  composed  ? 
(4.)  Of  what  does  the  next,  or  seventh  class  consist? 

XVII.— (1.)  What  does  the  eighth  class  number?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  a 
ninth  class  ?     (3.)  What  is  the  social  character  of  these  persons? 

XVin.— (I.)  What  is  said  of  the  mikado?  (2.)  What  is  he  allowed  ?  ^3.) 
W' bat  is  done  w  ilh  articles  used  bv  hini  ? 


252  History  of  Governments. 

stroyed  when  once  used,  as  sacred  to  hira  only.  (4.)  The  raikadc 
enjoys  no  liberty,  revenues,  nor  power,  and  is  surrounded  by  spies  of 
the  siogun. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  siogun  lives  in  a  palace  at  Jeddo,  and  seldom 
is  seen  abroad,  except  when  he  goes  to  visit  the  mikado  at  seasons 
of  festival.  (2.)  The  business  of  the  government  is  confided  to  a 
council  of  state,  composed  of  thirteen  high  dignitaries.  (3.)  This 
council  decides  upon  all  measures,  and  appoints  or  removes  ofiBcers. 
(4.)  It  carries  on  correspondence  with  the  different  provinces  and 
rulers. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

RUSSIAN     FEUDAL     DESPOTISM. 

I, — (1.)  The  Russian  empire  has  arisen  out  of  the  extending  do- 
minion of  a  northern  nation  called  Muscovites.  (2.)  The  predeces- 
sors of  the  present  people  comprised  Scythian,  Hungarian,  Sarraa- 
tian,  and  other  tribes,  of  ancient  northern  barbarians.  (3.)  The 
country  now  known  as  Russia  was  formerly  governed  by  chiefs  of 
independent  clans. 

II. — (1.)  The  Muscovite  people  remained  in  a  state  of  barbarism 
till  the  reign  of  one  of  their  monarchs,  Peter  the  Great.  (2.) 
Peter  flourished  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
(3.)  He  gave  to  his  subjects  laws  and  institutions,  which  have  been 
modified  and  improved  by  later  monarchs. 

(4.)  How  is  the  mikado  restricted? 

XIX. —  (1  )  What  is  said  of  the  siogun?  (2  )  Who  carries  on  the  business 
of  his  government?  (3.)  What  is  the  authority  of  this  body  ?  (4.)  Of  what 
correspondence  has  it  charge? 

I. — (1.)  From  what  has  the  Russian  empire  arisen?  (2.)  What  were  the 
predecessors  of  Russians?     (3.)  How  were  the  Muscovites  governed  ? 

n. —  1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Muscovite  people?  (2)  When  did  Peter  the 
Great  flourish  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  Peter  ? 


Russian  Feudal  Despotism.  253 

III. —  (1.)  The  ffoveriiincnt  of  Russia  is  an  iinliruited  mnnarclr; 
or  despotism,  (2.)  The  emperor  is  called  Czar,  and  Autocrat  of  all 
the  Eussias.  (3.)  The  title  Czar  is  « qnivaleiit  to  the  German  Kaiser, 
or  that  of  Csesar,  held  by  ancient  Roman  emperors.  (4.)  It  is 
thought  the  Russian  emperors  sig'uify  by  it  their  pretensions  to 
sovereignty  over  C()nstantim>ple  and  the  eastern  Roman  empire,  now 
controlled  by  the  Turks. 

rV. — (1.)  The  Autocrat  of  Russia  Is  a  hereditary  ruler,  and  is 
obliged  to  profess  the  Greek  or  eastern  Christian  creed.  (2.)  He 
is  assisted  in  the  administration  of  government  by  four  principal 
councils. 

V. — (1.)  The  first  of  the  four  bodies  is  called  the  imperial  coun- 
cil. (2.)  Its  members  are  selected  from  the  higher  nobility,  or 
boyards  of  the  empire.  (3.)  The  boyards  were,  in  early  times, 
chiefs  of  tribes  or  communities.  (4.)  They  are  now  the  principal 
landholders  of  the  country.  (5.)  The  imperial  council  is  presided 
over  by  the  emperor  himself,  or  his  representative. 

VI, — (1.)  The  imperial  council  is  divided  into  five  committees  or 
boards,  having  each  charge  of  a  distinct  department  of  administra- 
tion. (2.)  One  of  these  boards  supervises  military  matters  ;  another 
civil  and  religious  ;  a  third,  statistics  and  finance  ;  a  fourth,  laws 
and  ordinances  ;  and  a  fifth,  the  affairs  of  provinces,  including 
Poland  and  Finland  (3.)  A  secretary  of  state  is  placed  at  the  head 
of  each  department. 

VII. — (1.)  The  imperial  council  deliberates  as  a  body,  in  as- 
semblies of  all  its  members,  or  through  the  members  of  committees, 

HI. — (1.)  What  is  the  form  of  Russian  government?  (2.)  What  are  the 
emperor's  titles?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  tiile  of  Czar?  (4.)  Wliat  of  its 
siftnificatiou  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Autocrat  of  Russia?  (2.)  How  is  he  assisted 
in  government  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  is  the  first  body  called?  (2.)  How  are  its  memhtrs  ap- 
pointed? (3.)  What  were  the  boyards  formerly  ?  (4.)  What  are  they  now  ? 
(5.)  Who  presides  over  the  imperial  council? 

VI. — (1  )  How  is  the  council  divided?  (2.)  What  do  the  boards  supervise? 
(3.)  What  is  placed  at  the  head  of  each  ? 

Vn. — (1.)  How  does  the  council  deliberate? 


254  History  of  Governments, 

each  Toting  on  its  ovm  affairs.  (2.)  A  majority  of  votes  in  the  as- 
sembly, or  in  a  committee,  decides  for  or  against  any  measure.  (3.) 
The  emperor  is  not  bound  by  any  decision,  but  accepts  or  rejects,  as 
lie  considers  best,  being  supreme  ruler. 

VIIL— (1.)  There  is  a  legislative  body  in  Russia  called  a  senate, 
presided  over  by  the  Czar  or  his  representative.  (2.)  This  body 
issues  laws,  and  is  the  highest  court  of  justice  in  the  empire.  (3.) 
The  emperor  reserves  the  right  of  reversing  its  decisions  or  annul- 
ling its  laws,  by  edicts  or  proclamations,  regarded  as  the  highest  ■ 
authority, 

IX. — (I.)  The  Russian  senate  is  divided  into  eight  judicial  bodies, 
or  departments.  (2.)  Each  constitutes  a  court  having  chief  juris- 
diction over  particular  provinces  and  districts,  (3.)  The  senators 
comprising  each  high  court  make  their  decisions  by  a  majority  of 
voices.  (4.)  Two-thirds  of  the  votes  of  a  court  are  necessary  to  a 
decision.  (5.)  If  two-thirds  of  a  single  court,  or  judicial  depart- 
ment, cannot  be  obtained,  all  the  members  of  the  senate  assemble 
as  a  judicial  body. 

X. — (1.)  A  code  of  laws  is  used  in  Russia  for  the  guidance  of 
high  and  low  tribunals.  (2.)  It  consists  of  a  digest  or  selection  of 
the  laws  and  edicts  issued  by  different  emperors  during  two  centuries. 

XI. — (1.)  A  principal  branch  of  Russian  government  is  the 
Synod  of  bishops  and  other  ecclesiastics.  (2.)  The  established  reli- 
gion of  Russia  is  that  known  as  Greek  or  eastern  Christianity, 
(3.)  The  head  of  the  church,  called  the  Patriarch,  resides  at  Con- 

(2.)  What  decides  upon  measures?  (3.)  How  is  the  emperor  affected  by  deci- 
sions of  the  council  ? 

Vin.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  senate?  (2.)  What  is  its  authority?  (3.) 
What  power  has  the  emperor  over  it? 

IX.— (1.)  How  is  the  Russian  senate  divided?  (2.)  What  does  each  con- 
stitute? (3.)  How  are  judicial  decisions  made?  (4.)  What  proportion  of 
votes  decide!"  (5.)  What  is  done  if  two-thirds  of  a  single  court  cannot 
agree  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  laws?     (2.)  Of  what  does  the  code  consist? 

XI. —  (1.)  What  is  a  principal  branch  of  government?  (2.)  Wbit  is  the  r&- 
ligiou  of  Russia?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  patriarch  ? 


Russian  Feudal  Despotism.  255 

stantinople.  (4.)  He  is  regarded  to  be  chief  bishop,  as  the  Pope 
of  Rome  is  considered  chief  bishop  of  the  Romish  church.  (5.) 
The  synod  of  bishops  in  Russia  has  charge  of  all  matters  relating 
to  religion  in  the  empire. 

XII.— (1.)  The  College  of  Ministers  is  the  name  given  to  a  body 
of  officers  appointed  by  the  emperor,  as  heads  of  departments  or 
bureaus.  (2.)  These  ministers  are  thirteen  in  number,  and  superin- 
tend as  many  departments  of  the  administration.  (3.)  They  have 
direction  of  the  army  and  navy,  courts  of  justice,  educational  mat- 
ters, and  financial  affairs. 

XIII.— (1.)  The  ministers  have  a  seat  and  voice  in  the  imperial 
council,  and  also  in  the  senate.  (2.)  Under  the  ministry  are  civil 
and  military  governors  of  districts  and  provinces.  (3.)  There  are 
fifty-one  inferior  governments  or  districts.  (4.)  Forty  are  situated 
in  Europe,  and  the  rest  in  Asia  and  America. 

XIV.— (1.)  The  civil  affairs  of  every  inferior  district  are  con- 
ducted by  a  civil  governor,  and  military  matters  by  a  commander. 
(2.)  Several  provinces  combined  are  intrusted  to  a  governor-gene- 
ral, with  civil  and  military  powers.  (3.)  This  officer  is  responsible 
for  the  conduct  of  governors  immediately  under  his  direction. 

XV. — (1.)  The  people  of  Russia  are  divided  politically  into  four 
classes.  (2.)  First,  are  the  clergy;  next,  the  nobility;  thirdly, 
merchants  and  burghers,  or  freemen  ;  and  fourthly,  the  serfs. 

XVI. —  (1.)  The  clergy  are  of  two  grades,  regular  and  secular. 
(2.)  The  regular  clergy  are  those  belonging  to  special  orders  of  the 

(4.)  How  is  he  looked  upon  ?     (5.)  Of  what  has  the  synod  charge  ? 

XII.— (1.)  What  is  the  College  of  Ministers?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  these 
ministers  ?     (3.)  What  authority  have  they  ? 

XIII. — (1.)  Where  do  the  ministers  have  a  seat?  (2.)  What  are  under  the 
ministry  ?  (3.)  How  many  inferior  governments  are  there  in  Russia  ?  (4.| 
Wlicre  are  they  established? 

XIV. —  (1.)  How  are  provincial  districts  governed  ?  (i.)  What  is  said  of  a 
governor-general  ?     {'.i.)  For  what  is  a  governor-general  responsible  ? 

XV. — (1.)  How  are  the  Russian  people  politically  divided?  (2)  What  are 
the  distinctions  ? 

X.VI.— (1.)  How  are  the  clergy  divided  ?     (2.)  What  are  the  regular  clergy? 


256  History  of  Governments. 

priesthood.  (3.)  They  constitute  the  higher  church  officials  and 
dignitaries.  (4.)  The  secular  clergy  are  parish  ministers,  who  are 
obliged  to  be  married.  (5.)  They  are  poorly  supported,  and  gene- 
rally very  ignorant. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  nobles  are  of  two  grades,  those  claiming  by 
birth,  and  those  becoming  such  by  service  of  the  emperor.  (2.) 
All  officers  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  all  state  functionaries,  belong 
to  some  grade  of  nobiliiy.  (3.)  There  are  fourteen  of  these  grades, 
the  lowest  being  a  military  ensign,  or  a  college  registrar. 

XVIII. — (1.)  Officials  who  attain  by  services  to  the  eighth 
grade,  gain  hereditary  nobility.  (2.)  The  rank  of  all  below  that 
grade  dies  with  its  possessors.  (3.)  An  army  major,  a  navy  cap- 
tain, or  a  college  assessor,  may  transmit  his  nobility  to  descendants. 
(4.)  By  these  regulations  the  nobility  of  Russia  is  continually 
increasing  in  number. 

XIX. — (1.)  Merchants  and  burghers,  called  the  free  class,  form 
six  grades,  not  including  the  nobles  or  clergy.  (2.)  The  six  grades 
always  comprise  the  three  guilds  of  capitalists  inhabiting  towns,  the 
trades,  the  professions,  and  the  colonists. 

XX.— (1.)  Merchants  of  the  first  guild  pay  an  annual  sum  of 
five  hundred  dollars  for  license  to  trade,  and  are  unrestricted  in 
commerce.  (2.)  Those  of  the  second  guild  pay  two  hundred  dol- 
lars annually,  and  are  forbidden  to  make  contracts  exceeding 
$10,000,  or  to  open  banking  or  insurance  offices.  (3.)  Those  of  the 
third  guild  pay  fifty  dollars  annually,  and  are  allowed  to  carry  on 


(B.)  What  do  tbey  constitute?     (4.)  What  are  the  secular  clergy?     (5.)  What 
is  said  of  the  secular  clertry  ? 

XVIL— (1.)  What  are  the  grades  of  nobility.     (2.)  What  is  said  of  officials? 
(3.)  How  many  grades  of  nobility  are  there  ? 

XVIII.— (1.)   What   persons  gain   hereditary  nobility?     (2.)   What   is   sai  J  _ 
of  ranks  below  the  eighth  ?     (3.)  What  persons  are  mentioned  as  hereditary 
nobles  ?     (4.)    What  is  the  consequence  of  these  regulations  ? 

XIX.— (1.)   What  do  merchants  and  burghers  form?     (2.)  What  do  these 
grades  comprise  ? 

XX.— (1.)  What  do  merchants  of  the  fi.st  guild  pay  ?     (2.)  What  do  those 
of  the  second  guild  pay  ?     (3.)  What  do  those  of  the  third  guild  pay  ? 


Russian   Feudal   Despotism.  a?57 

retail  trades  or  manufactures,  but  not  to  employ  more  than 
thirty -two  workmen. 

XXI. — (1.)  Burghers  who  pay  from  five  to  fifteen  dollars 
annually,  are  restricted  as  to  the  trades  they  shall  follow  and 
the  number  of  workmen  they  may  employ.  (2.)  Those  who 
take  out  no  license,  are  confined  to  certain  limits,  wherein  to 
carry  on  their  trades.  (3.)  All  burghers  are  obliged  to  pay  an 
annual  head-tax.  (4.)  All  are  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  serve 
in  the  army. 

XXII. — (1.)  The  fourth  division  of  Russian  population 
composed  the  masses  of  the  nation.  (2.)  They  constituted  the 
class  of  peasantry  or  serfs,  the  lowest  division  of  population. 
(3.)  They  were  serfs  belonging  to  the  estates  or  lands  whereon 
they  were  born. 

XXIII. — (1.)  The  time  and  labor  of  serfs  were  claimed  by 
the  owner  of  the  estate  to  which  they  pertained.  (2.)  A  lord 
was  permitted  by  law  to  inflict  any  punishment  on  his  serfs 
that  did  not  cause  death  within  twenty-four  hours  afterward. 
(3.)  The  servants  of  an  estate  passed  with  the  land  which  they 
occupied. 

XXIV.— (1.)  Of  late  years  the  condition  of  Russian  peas- 
ants has  been  improved  by  humane  laws  and  edicts  of  the  em- 
peror. (2.)  Many  millions  of  serf s  who  formerly  belonged  to 
the  crown  estates,  have  received  their  freedom.  (3.)  The  great 
land  proprietors  of  Russia  have  consented  to  the  policy  of 
making  their  serfs  free,  and  allowing  them  small  farms  to  cul- 
tivate for  themselves. 

XXV.— (1.)  It  is  estimated  that  there  were  forty  millions 
of  serfs  in  Russia  out  of  a  population  of  sixty  millions.    (2.)  The 


XXI.— (1-)  What  13  restricted  la  trade?  (a.)  How  are  unlicensed  burghers  r©- 
strictcd?    (3.)  What  are  all  burghers  obliged  to  pay?    (1.)  To  what  are  all  liable? 

XXII.— (!•)  What  does  the  fourth  class  of  population  comprise?  (i.)  What  did  it 
constitute?    (3.)  What  was  its  condition? 

XXIII.— <!•)  Towhomdid  the  time  and  lnbor  of  serfs  belong?  (2.)  Whataulhort- 
ty  was  claimed  by  a  master?    (3.)  How  were  tenants  vsoldv 

XXIV.— (1-)  What  has  been  done  of  late  years?  (2)  How  have  serfs  been  benefit- 
ed?   (4.)  What  are  landholders  now  doing? 

XXV.— (1.)    How    many    sorte    existed   in     Uussla?    (2.)  How    many  noblea 


258  History  of  Governmenis. 

noble  ranks  do  not  number  a  million  persons.  (3.)  The  remainder 
of  the  emperor's  subjects,  besides  the  burghers,  include  nine  races 
of  men,  comprising  eighty  different  tribes.  (4.)  Millions  of  these 
wander  in  nomadic  communities,  under  chiefs,  in  the  rudest  state  of 
barbarism. 

XXVI. — (1.)  For  educational  purposes,  the  government  of 
Russia  divides  the  country  into  university  districts.  (2.)  In  many 
of  these  districts  chief  colleges  are  now  established.  (3.)  Each 
university  district  comprises  several  civil  and  military  governments 
in  its  extent.  (4.)  The  system  of  instruction  embraces  academies, 
or  military  schools,  high  schools,  district  schools,  and  parish  schools. 
(5.)  They  are  all  superintended  by  the  university  officers,  under 
direction  of  the  Secretary  of  Public  Instruction. 


are  there?    (3.)  What  do  the  rest  of  Russian  subjects  include?     (4.)  What 
is  said  concerning  these  ? 

XXVI.— (1.)  How  is  Russia  divided  for  educational  purposes?  (2.)  What 
are  established  ?  (3.)  What  does  each  district  comprise  ?  (4.)  What 
does  the  system  cf  instruction  include?  (6.)  What  is  the  superintending 
authority  ? 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE     PRUSSIAN     MILITARY     DESPOTISM, 

I. — (1.)  The  Prussian  natioa  is  composed  of  descendants  of  a 
Scythian  tribe  named  Borussians,  who  colonized  a  district  of  Ger- 
many. (2.)  The  government  of  Prussia  at  present  is  constituted  on 
the  system  of  a  hereditary  absolute  monarchy,  with  a  mixture  of 
the  representative  principle  in  minor  affairs.  (3.)  The  king  is  mili- 
tary commander,  and  an  irresponsible  ruler  of  his  subjects,  all  of 
whom  are  trained  to  bear  arms. 

II. — (1.)  The  king  selects  a  cabinet  of  ministers,  to  assist  him  in 
the  government,  and  appoints  all  judges  and  executive  officers. 
(2.)  He  revises,  changes,  or  makes  laws,  with  the  assistance  of  a 
council  of  state,  constituted  under  bis  direction. 

III. — (1.)  The  council  of  state  is  composed  of  all  princes  of  the 
royal  family,  who  are  eighteen  years  old,  together  with  the  princi- 
pal officers  of  departments.  (2.)  The  council  of  state  meets  regu- 
larly on  stated  days,  during  nine  months  of  the  year. 

IV. — (1.)  Six  committees  are  selected  from  members  of  the 
council  at  every  annual  session.  (2.)  The  duties  of  these  commit- 
tees embrace  the  consideration  of  public  policy.  (3.)  They 
have  charge  of  business  relating  to  foreign,  military,  financial,  judi- 
cial, domestic,  and  educational  branches  of  administration  and  law- 
making. 

I. — (1.)  What  was  the  origin  of  the  Prussian  nation?  (2.)  How  is  the 
Prussian  government  constituted  ?     (3.)  What  authority  has  the  sovereign  ? 

n. — (1.)  How  does  the  Iting  organize  his  administration  ?  (2.)  What  legis- 
lative power  does  he  possess  ? 

m. — (1.)  How  is  the  council  of  state  composed?     (2.)  When  does  it  meet? 

rV. — (1.)  What  are  selected  ?  (2.)  What  are  the  duties  of  these  commit 
tees?    (3.;  Of  what  business  have  they  charge? 


26o  History  of  Governments. 

V. — (1.)  Each  state  couucil  comuiittee  consists  of  five  members, 
not  connected  with  that  branch  of  government  with  whose  policy 
they  liave  to  do.  (2.)  They  possess  authority  to  summon  officials 
and  other  citizens  to  attend  their  sittings,  as  witnesses  and  advisers. 
(3.)  The  minister,  as  head  of  the  department  that  is  connected  with 
a  committee's  labors,  is  required  to  be  present  when  necessary,  but 
speaks  only  by  permission  of  the  committee. 

VI. — (1.)  When  a  law  or  course  of  policy  is  discussed  by  a 
committee,  the  five  members  vote  upon  its  adoption,  and  three  voices 
decide  in  its  favor.  (2.)  A  report  is  then  laid  before  the  king,  who 
may  approve,  reject,  or  change  the  proposition,  according  to  his 
will.  (3.)  No  law  goes  into  operation  without  the  king's  permission 
and  signature. 

VII. — (1.)  A  secretary  of  state,  appointed  by  the  king,  takes 
charge  of  laws,  and  causes  them  to  be  promulgated,  after  adoption. 
(2.)  Every  committee  maintains  a  body  of  clerks  for  its  business. 
(3.)  The  state  council  furnishes  books  containing  all  the  laws  of  the 
kingdom,  for  official  use  and  distribution. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  administration  of  general  authority  is  placed  in 
charge  of  superintendents  or  ministers.  (2.)  One  minister  oversees 
the  national  accounts  and  debts.  (3.)  Another  minister  is  at  the 
head  of  spiritual  or  religious  affairs.  (4.)  A  third  takes  cognizance 
of  matters  connected  with  medical  professions.  (5.)  A  fourth  su- 
perintends the  education  of  the  people,  which  is  strictly  enforced  by 
law.  (6.)  The  minister  of  each  department  exercises  control  over 
the  publication  of  newspapers  or  books  relating  to  the  matters 
under  his  care. 

V. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  eacli  committee?  (2.)  What  authority  do  they 
possess?     (3.)  Who  is  required  to  be  present  at  a  committee's  meetings? 

VI. — (1.)  How  is  a  law  acted  upon  in  a  committee?  (2.)  What  action  is 
then  taken?     (3.)   What  is  necessarv  to  a  law? 

Vn.— (1.)  What  is  done  by  a  seci-etary  of  state?  (2.)  What  does  every 
committee  maintain  ?     (3.)  What  assistance  is  provided  by  the  state  council? 

VIII.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  administration?  (2.)  What  does  one  minister 
do?  (3)  What  is  another  minister's  position?  (4.)  Of  what  does  a  third 
take  cognizance?  (5.)  What  does  a  fourth  minister  superintend?  (6.)  What 
control  is  exercised  bv  the  ministers  ? 


The   Prussian  Military  Despotism.  261 

IX. — (1.)  Tbe  kiugdom  is  divided  into  eight  provinces,  politically 
arranged  in  larger  districts  called  governments  and  circles,  and 
smaller  ones  called  commonalties.  (2.)  At  the  head  of  every  pro- 
vince is  a  governor,  known  as  the  High  President.  (3.)  He,  by 
right  of  position,  is  a  member  of  the  council  of  state,  in  Berlin,  the 
Prussian  capital. 

X. — (1.)  A  high  president  of  a  province  is  assisted  in  his  ad- 
ministration by  a  provincial  council,  a  secretary,  and  subordinate 
oEBcials.  (2.)  He  is  responsible  for  all  departments  of  civil  autho- 
rity, and  acts  in  connection  with  the  military  commander,  or  gene- 
ral, of  the  province.  (3.)  Tlie  tax  collectors  and  other  provincial 
ofiBcers  of  the  royal  government  are  under  his  direction. 

XI. — (1.)  An  aristocratic  assembly,  or  body  of  landholders, 
meets  annually,  in  every  province  of  Prussia.  (2.)  This  body  is 
composed,  firstly,  of  nobles,  who  appear  as  representatives  of  the 
largest  land  proprietors,  and  secondly,  of  delegates  chosen  from 
towns  and  rural  districts,  by  wealthy  possessors  of  the  soil. 

XII. — (1.)  The  provincial  assembly  members  consider  matters 
of  interest  to  various  districts,  and  prepare  such  measures  of  re- 
form as  they  deem  proper.  (2.)  These  measures  are  sent  to  the 
king,  through  his  ministers  of  state.  (3.)  The  king  may  reject  or 
approve  them  at  his  pleasure. 

XIII. — (1.)  Each  Prussian  province  is  politically  sub-divided 
into  lower  administrations  called  governments.  (2.)  Each  of  these 
is  conducted  by  a  president  and  his  assistants,  called  counsellors, 
responsible  to  the  high  president  of  the  province.     (3.)  One  coun- 

IX.— (1.)  How  is  the  Prussian  kingdom  divided?  (2.)  Wiio  is  at  the  head 
of  every  province?     (3.)   Of  what  is  he  a  member? 

X — (1.)  How  is  a  high  president  assisted?  (2.)  What  responsibility  has  he? 
(3.)    What  officials  are  under  his  direction? 

XI.— (1.)  What  provincial  assembly  ineets  annually?  (2.)  How  is  such  a 
provincial  assembly  composed  ? 

Xn. — (1.)  What  action  does  the  provincial  assembly  take?  (2.)  What  be- 
comes of  measures  adopted  by  an  assembly?  (3.)  What  power  has  the  king 
over  them  ? 

XIII. — (1.)  How  are  Prussian  provinces  sub-divided?  (2.)  How  is  each 
of  these  conducted  ?     (3.)   What  do  counsellors  do  ? 


262  History  of  Goyernments. 

seller  oversees  schools  and  churches  ;  another,  the  collectidn  of 
taxes  ;  a  third,  the  public,  or  king's  lands.  (4.)  Matters  of  im- 
portance are  deliberated  upon  in  a  meeting  of  all  the  counsellors  of 
a  district.  (5.)  The  counsellors  are  appointed  by  the  ministers  of 
state.  (6.)  The  inferior  royal  officers  of  a  district  are  generally 
appointed  by  the  president,  and  the  government  treasurer,  or  other 
responsible  agent,  is  chosen  by  the  body  of  counsellors. 

XIV. — (1.)  Each  government,  so  called,  is  separated  into  infe- 
rior departments  called  cirdes.  (2.)  The  public  business  of  each 
circle  is  conducted  by  a  commissioner  or  counsellor,  appointed  by 
the  high  president  of  the  province,  and  a  committee  of  burghers, 
belonging  to  a  local  representative  council  called  a  Staande. 

XV. — (1.)  The  Staande  of  a  circle  is  an  assembly  composed  of 
the  chief  landholders  and  delegates  chosen  by  towns  and  rural 
neighborhoods,  called  commonalties.  (2.)  The  members  of  a  staande 
in  each  circle  are  supposed  to  represent  the  inhabitants  of  cities, 
and  the  peasantry  at  large. 

XVI. — (1.)  Commonalties,  in  Prussia,  are  towns  or  parishes, 
whose  minor  local  affairs  are  conducted  on  a  somewhat  democratic 
principle.  (2.)  The  officials  of  a  commonalty  are  classed  as  repre- 
sentatives and  magistrates.  (3.)  The  number  of  representatives  in 
a  commonalty  varies  according  to  the  population,  from  twenty  to 
over  a  hundred. 

XVII. — (1.)  Every  house  proprietor,  or  inhabitant,  whose  an- 
nual income  is  one  liundred  and  fifty  dollars,  is  entitled  to  cast  a 
ballot  for  the  choice  of  representatives.     (2.)  The  body  of  repre- 

(4.)  How  are  matters  of  importance  acted  upon  ?  (5.)  Who  appoint  the 
counsellors?     ((>.)  What  is  said  of  other  officers? 

XIV. —  (1.)  How  are  the  governments  sub-divided?  (2.)  How  is  public 
business  conducted  in  the  circles  ? 

XV. — (1  )  What  's  the  staande  of  a  circle?  (2  )  What  do  members  of  a 
staande  represent : 

XVI. — (1.)  What  are  Prussian  cw"»io)m^<i€.';  .^  ('2.)  How  are  the  officials  of 
a  commonalty  classed  ?     (3.)   What  is  said  of  representatives  ? 

XVII. — (1.)  What  persons  are  entitled  to  vote  for  representatives  in  a  com* 
monalty?     (2.     What  is  done  by  the  representatives? 


The   Prussian  Military  Despotism.  263 

sentiitives  deliberate  011  pujlic  business,  and  choose  the  magistracy 
from  their  own  members,  to  execute  ordinances. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  magistracy  of  a  commonalty  are  elected  to 
office  for  three  years.  (2.)  One  of  their  number  is  selected  by  royal 
appointment  to  be  tlie  chief  burgomaster,  or  mayor.  (3.)  The 
autiiority  of  mayor  may  be  extended  to  twelve  years,  or  for  life. 

XIX. — (1.)  Commonalty  representatives  appoint  committees  of 
their  members,  in  imitation  of  the  committees  of  the  council  of 
srate  at  the  capital.  (2.)  These  committees  take  charge  of  different 
local  matters.  (3.)  Magistrates  of  a  commonalty  have  no  power 
to  impose  local  taxes,  or  incur  expenses,  without  sanction  of  the 
assembly  of  representatives.  (4  )  Reports  of  commonalty  business 
are  prepared  by  the  representatives  every  year,  and  made  public 
to  the  citizens. 

XX. — (1.)  The  assembly  of  representatives  in  the  commonalty 
of  Berlin,  capital  of  Prussia,  consists  of  over  a  hundred  meml)ers. 
(2.)  The  magistracy  selected  from  this  body  comprise  the  upper  bur- 
gomaster, a  burgomaster,  and  the  several  judges  and  other  officers 
called  syndics.  (3.)  Under  control  of  the  magistracy,  are  com- 
mittees on  building,  on  trade,  on  public  schools  of  the  commonalty, 
ou  finances,  on  the  poor,  and  on  the  fire  department.  (4.)  All 
business  connected  with  money  is  controlled  by  the  assembly  of 
representatives. 

XXI. — (1.)  Ttie  framework  of  Prussian  government,  from  the 
council  of  state  down  to  representatives  of  commonalties,  is  the 
result  of  various  regulations  made  from  time  to  time  by  the  king. 

XVIII. — (1.)  What  is  the  term  of  a  magistrate's  office?  (2.)  Wl;o  becomes 
chief  burgomaster,  or  mayor  ?  (3.)  How  long  may  the  chief  burgomaster  hold 
office? 

XIX. — (1.)  What  do  commonalty  representatives  appoint?  (2.)  What  is 
the  business  of  committees  so  appointed?  (3.)  How  is  the  power  of  magis- 
trates restrained?     (4.)   What  reports  are  made  ? 

XX. — (1.)  How  many  representatives  compose  the  commonalty  of  Berlin? 
«2.)  What  officers  do  tlie  Berlin  magistracy  comprise  ?  (3.)  What  are  under 
the  control  of  this  magistracy?  (4.)  What  is  said  concerning  money 
matters  ? 

XXL— (1.)  Of  what  is  I'russian  government  the  result? 


264  History  of  Governments 

(2.)  "Whatever  freedom  is  possessed  by  a  citizen  of  Prussia,  is  con 
sidered  as  a  privilege  granted  by  the  monarch  to  his  subject.  (3.) 
It  is  liable  to  be  again  taken  away  or  modified  by  the  supreme  head 
of  the  State. 

XXII. — (1.)  In  Prussia  there  is.  no  positive  aristocracy, 
claiming  the  privilege  to  hold  offices  in  preference  to  other  classes. 
{2.)  Proper  education  is  considered  the  best  claim  of  a  citizen  to 
employment  under  government.  (3.)  Men  of  talent  and  merit, 
rather  than  birth  and  rank,  are  selected  by  the  king  and  his 
ministers  to  fill  places  of  trust  and  influence. 

XXIII.— (1.)  The  nobility  of  Prussia  hold  no  hereditary  position 
or  power  as  a  class,  except  as  persons  of  wealth  or  large  estates. 
(2.)  The  influence  of  a  public  man  under  the  Prussian  government 
depends  upon  his  personal  character  and  abilities. 

XXIV.— (1.)  The  system  of  national  education  in  Prussia  is 

very  complete.  (2.)  The  law  prescribes  that  every  individual  shall 
go  through  a  regular  course  of  study.  (3.)  Each  district,  town,  or 
parish,  called  a  commonalty,  is  obliged  to  provide  proper  means  of 
instruction  for  its  children. 

XXV. — (1.)  In  each  commonalty  a  school-tax  is  imposed  on 
every  male  inhabitant  in  proportion  to  his  income.  (2.)  This 
school-tax  is  used  to  pay  salaries  of  teachers,  build  school-houses 
and  provide  books. 

XXVI.  -(1.)  The  minister  of  public  instruction  at  Berlin  is 
superintendent  of  school  afi'airs  throughout  the  kingdom.  (2.)  For 
every  circle,  or  county,  there  is  an  inspector  appointed  to  supervise 
the  schools  of  his  district,  and  report  to  the  authorities  above  him, 

(2.)  What  is  said  of  Prussian  freedom  ?     (3.)  To  what  is  it  liable  ? 

XXn.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  aristocracy?  (2.)  How  is  education  regarded? 
(3)  What  persons  are  preferred  for  office  ? 

XXm.— (1.)  What  power  have  the  Prussian  nobility?  (2.)  On  what  does 
political  influence  depend  ? 

XXIV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Prussian  education?  (2.)  What  is  prescribed 
by  law  ?     (3.)  What  is  each  commonalty  obliged  to  provide  ? 

2XV.— (1.)  What  personal  tax  is  imposed  ?     (2.)  How  is  this  tax  used  ? 

XXVI. — (1.)  Who  superintends   educational  matters?     (2.)  What  is  ap- 


The  Prussian  Military  Despotism.  269 

eencerning  their  couditioa  (3.)  The  educational  committees  of 
eyery  district  correspond  regularly  with  the  department  of  instruc- 
tion at  the  capital. 

XXVII. — (1.)  Every  parish  vschool  in  Prussia  is  under  super- 
vision of  local  authorises,  all  directly  controlled  by  the  minister  of 
instruction.  (2.)  The  law  requires  every  Prussian  to  send  his 
children  and  dependents  to  a  public  elementary  school  from  the  age 
of  seven  to  that  of  fourteen  years.  (3.)  School  hours  are  arranged 
so  as  to  allow  the  children  of  poor  people  a  portion  of  each  day 
for  employment  in  labor. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  Every  child  in  Prussia  is  required  to  go  through 
a  certain  course  of  elementary  studies.  (2.)  No  private  school  is 
allowed  to  be  opened  except  by  express  permission  of  the  authori- 
ties of  a  town.  (3.)  Laws  concerning  attendance  at  school,  are 
carried  out  with  the  utmost  strictness. 

XXIX. —  (1.)  Every  Prussian  youth,  after  receiving  his  educa- 
tion, is  obliged  to  bear  arms  as  a  soldier  of  the  state.  (2.)  The 
law  decides  that  every  citizen  is  a  soldier,  and  every  soldier  a 
citizen.  (3.)  All  the  male  population  able  to  serve  are  considered 
to  compose  the  Prussian  army. 

XXX. — (1.)  Every  male,  on  reaching  his  twentieth  birthday,  is 
enrolled  in  the  army,  and  obliged  usually  to  serve  five  years. 
(2.)  At  the  end  of  this  term  he  is  entitled  to  a  discharge,  or  he 
may  remain  as  a  regular  soldier  in  the  Landwehr  militia.  (3.)  The 
first  class  of  Landwehr  is  composed  of  persons  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  years  of  age,  who  are  called  out  once  a  year  in  time  of  peace, 
and  in  war  are  made  part  of  the  king's  troops. 

pointed  for  every  circle  ?     (3.)  What  do  educational  committees  do? 

XXVII. — (1.)  What  avithority  directs  parish  schools?  (2.)  What  is  required 
by  law?     (,3.)  How  are  school  hours  arranged  ? 

XXVm. — (1.)  What  is  required  of  every  Prussian  child?  (2.)  What  ia 
said  of  private  schools  ?     (3.)  What  of  school  laws? 

XXIX. — (1.)  What  is  every  Prussian  youth  obliged  to  do?  (2.)  What  does 
the  law  decide?     (3.)  How  is  the  Prussian  army  composed? 

XXX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  every  male  ?  (2.)  What  is  provided  at  the  end 
of  this  term  of  service  ?  (3.)  Of  what  is  the  first  class  of  Landwehr  com- 
posed ? 

12 


266  History  of  Governments. 

XXXI. — (1.)  At  the  age  of  thirty,  a  Prussian  who  remains 
in  the  service,  passes  into  the  second-class  Landwehr,  of  which  he 
continues  a  member  till  he  is  thirty-nine  years  old.  (2.)  This 
body  of  militia  is  called  out  only  when  the  government  is  in  great 
need  of  soldieivs.  (3.)  The  last  military  service  of  a  Prussian  is  iu 
the  Landsturm,  composed  of  persons  between  thirty-seven  and  fifty 
years  old.  (4.)  This  body  is  called  to  active  service  only  when  the 
district  of  its  own  residence  is  in  danger. 

XXXII. — (1.)  The  Prussian  army,  though  under  strict  disci- 
pline, is  not  aristocratic  in  its  organization.  (2.)  All  ranks  and 
promotions  are  open  to  those  who  possess  merit  and  bravery. 
(3.")  The  king  is  general-in-chief,  and  can  call  out  the  whole  force 
of  Prussia  to  iia:ht  in  his  wars. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE   AUSTRIAN   ABSOLUTE   MONARCHY. 

I. — (1.)  When  the  French  emperor,  Charlemagne,  subdued  the 
German  settled  nations,  he  established  a  subordinate  government 
called  Oest-reich,  or  the  East  Kingdom.  (2.)  Over  this  he  placed  a 
military  governor,  with  a  force  to  defend  the  province  from  bar- 
barians. 

II. — (1.)  When  the  German  or  Holy  Roman  Empire  separated 
from  that  of  France,  the  province  of  Oest-reich  passed  with  it.  (2.) 
The  German  emperors  then  appointed  governors,  under  the  name 

XXXI. — (1.)  Where  does  a  Prussian  soldier  go  when  thirty  years  old? 
(2.)  What  is  said  of  ttj  second  class  Landwf\r  'f  (3.)  What  is  the  last  stage 
of  military  service  ?     v4.)  What  is  said  of  the  Landsturm  ? 

XXXII. — (1.)  What  is  the  character  of  the  Prussian  army?  (2.)  What  is 
said  of  promotion  ?     (3.)  What  authority  has  the  king  over  the  army  ? 

I. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Oest-reich?  (2.)  What  did  Charlemagne  place 
over  this  district? 

n. — [\.)  What  became  of  Oest-reich?     (2.)  How  was  it  then  governed? 


The  Austrian  Absolute  Monarchy.  •  *      267 

• 
of  mark-grafs,  or  lords  of  the  borders.  (3.)  The  name  of  Oest- 
reich  was  afterward  changed  to  Austria,  and  the  territory  grew  in 
extent,  and  was  governed  by  hereditary  rulers  under  the  title  of 
dukes.  (4.)  One  of  the  dukes  of  Austria  succeeded  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Holy  Eoinan  Empire,  and  the  latter  then  became  known 
as  the  empire  of  Austria. 

III. —  (1.)  The  government  of  Austria  is  an  absolute  monarchy, 
the  king  being  hereditary  and  irresponsible  head  of  the  state.  (2.) 
The  empire  consists  of  a  number  of  provinces,  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent as  regards  local  institutions. 

IV. — (1.)  The  various  provinces  composing  the  empire  have 
each  a  ministry  or  department  in  the  Austrian  capital,  which  is 
Vienna.  (2.)  The  heads  of  these  departments,  or  bureaus,  are 
assisted  by  subordinate  officers.  (3.)  They  are  means  of  communi- 
cation between  the  imperial  government  and  the  local  councils  of 
various  provinces. 

V. — (1.)  Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  some  Italian  states  retain 
many  of  their  own  institutions  and  laws.  (2.)  Governors  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  Emperor  of  Austria,  to  preside  over  local  councils 
chosen  by  the  inhabitants. 

VI. — (1.)  The  ancient  kingdom  of  Hungary  is  an  Austrian  pro- 
vince. (2.)  Its  population  is  divided  into  several  distinct  races,  de- 
scended from  various  Hunnish,  Panuonian,  and  Sarmatian  tribes. 
(3.)  Hungary  was,  during  many  centuries,  an  independent  king- 
dom,  with  mouarchs  elected  from  a  single  family. 

(3.)  To  what  was  its  name  changed?  (4.)  What  was  the  beginning  of  the 
Austrian  empire? 

m. — (1.)  Wliat  is  the  Austrian  government?  (2.)  Of  what  does  the  empire 
consist  ? 

rV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Austrian  provinces?  (2.)  How  are  the  heads 
of  provincial  bureaus  at  the  capital  assisted?  (3.)  Of  what  are  they  the 
means  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  certain  Austrian  provinces?  (2.)  How  are  they 
ruled  under  the  imperial  government? 

VI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Hungary?  (2.)  How  is  its  population  divided  ? 
(3.)   What  was  H  nigary  in  ancient  times? 


268         '  History  of  Governments. 

VII. — (1.)  The  hereditary  sovereign  of  Hungary  was  replaced 
by  an  officer  appointed  b}  the  Austrian  government,  under  the  title 
of  Statthalter.  (2.)  The  German  language,  as  spoken  in  Vienna,  is 
made  the  language  of  all  legal  communication.  (3.)  Austrian  offi- 
cers fill  most  of  the  offices  of  state.  (4.)  A  legislative  council, 
composed  of  nobility  and  landholders,  meets  in  the  chief  city. 

VIII. — (I.)  Bohemia,  another  ancient  kingdom,  is  also  a  pro- 
vince of  the  Austrian  empire.  (2.)  It  was,  in  early  times,  possessed 
by  different  barbarous  tribes,  called  Marcomanni,  Boii,  and  Czechs. 
(3.)  It  is  governed  by  Austrian  officials,  under  direction  of  the 
emperor. 

IX. — (1.)  Transylvania,  a  third  province  of  the  empire,  is  in- 
habited by  fourteen  different  tribes  or  races.  (2  )  The  lower  classes 
profess  the  Greek  religion,  and  are  without  instruction  or  social  con- 
sideration. (3.)  The  Emperor  of  Austria  appoints  all  crown  offi- 
cials, but  the  Transylvanians  have  their  own  legislative  assembly 
called  a  diet.  (4.)  The  members  of  this  body  are  selected  from  the 
three  principal  classes  of  landholders  in  Transylvania.  (5.)  They 
form  two  chambers,  and  make  or  change  local  laws.  (6.)  The 
population  is  divided  into  three  classes — nobles,  burghers,  and 
peasantry.  (7.)  The  last  are  mostly  serfs,  like  the  lower  class  of 
Russian  population. 

X. — (1.)  Moravia,  a  fourth  Austrian  province,  was  formerly  au 
independent  kingdom,  comprising  Bohemia,  Silesia,  and  parts  of 
northern  Germany  and  Hungary.  (2.)  The  government  is  now  ad- 
ministered by  an  officer  appointed  by  the  emperor,  in  connectiou 
with  a  diet  composed  of  clergy,  nobility,  and  citizens. 

VII. — (1.)  How  was  the  sovereign  of  Hungary  replaced?  (2.)  What  is 
the  official  language  of  Hungary?  (3.)  What  persons  are  appointed  to  office 
in  Hungary  ?     (4.)  What  is  said  of  a  legislative  council? 

VIII. — (1.)  What  is  Bohemia?  (2.)  Who  were  original  inhabitants  of  Bo- 
hemia ?     (3.)  How  is  Bohemia  now  governed? 

IX. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Transylvania?  (2.)  What  is  the  character  of  its 
lower  classes ?  (3.)  VHiat  is  the  government?  (4.)  What  persons  compose 
the  Transylvanian  Diet?  (5.)  What  is  said  of  its  members?  (6.)  How  is  the 
Transylvanian  population  divided?    (7.)  Of  what  is  the  last  mostly  composed? 

X.— (1.)  What  is  said  about  Moravia?     (2.)  What  is  its  government? 


Brunswick-  -Saxony — Wurtemberg.  269 

XI. — (1.)  The  Italian  proviuces  possessed  by  Austria  comprised, 
until  1859,  the  capitals  of  Milan,  Venice,  Verona,  Mantua,  Padua, 
cities  once  belonging  to  the  Roman  empire.  (2.)  Austrian  rale  is 
now  exercised  only  over  Venice,  which  is  ruled  by  governors,  under 
the  title  of  viceroys. 

XII. — (1.)  The  Emperor  of  Austria  is  supreme  sovereign  of  all 
nationalities  combined  under  his  sway.  (2.)  He  appoints  and  re- 
moves officials,  whether  military  or  civil,  except  in  a  few  cases  pro- 
vided for  by  recognized  laws.  (3.)  The  bureaus,  or  ministerial 
bodies,  representing  different  countries,  receive  orders  from  the  em- 
peror and  council,  and  transmit  them  to  districts  under  their  super- 
intendence. 

XIII. — (1.)  A  ministry  of  justice,  with  two  presidents,  composes 
the  chief  tribunal  of  Austria.  (2.)  Its  members  meet  in  two  bodies 
at  different  points  of  the  empire.  (3.)  In  the  original  territory  of 
Austria  education  is  generally  diffused.  (4.)  In  remote  provinces 
the  people  are  little  better  than  savage  boors. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

BRUNSWICK SAXOXY WURTEMBEKG. 

I. — (1.)  The  Duchy  of  Brunswick  is  governed  as  a  limited  inde 
pendent  monarchy.  (2.)  The  legislature  is  composed  of  the  duke 
and  two  chambers,  an  upper  and  a  lower  one.  (3.)  The  upper 
chamber  consists  of  nobles  entitled  to  seats  by  the  possession  of  a 

XI. — (1.)  What  Italian  provinces  were  till  recently  under  Austrian  govern- 
ment?    (2.)  Over  what  Italian  province  does  Austria  still  rule  ? 

XH. — (1.)  What  is  the  emperor's  authority?  (2.)  What  does  he  do  with  offi- 
cials?    (.S.)  What  is  said  of  bureaus  or  departments  under  government? 

Xm. — (1.)  What  is  the  chief  judicial  body  of  Austria?  (2.)  Where  do  its 
members  meet?  (,3)  What  is  said  of  education?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  dis- 
tant provinces  possessed  by  Austria  ? 

L — (1.)  How  is  the  Duchy  of  Brunswick  governed?  (2.)  Of  what  is  the 
legislature  composed?      (3)  What   persons   compose    the    upper   chamber? 


270  History  of  Governments. 

certaiu  rank  and  property,  and  of  the  six  highest  prelates  in  the 
chiH-ch.  (4.)  The  lower  chamber  is  formed  of  six  lower  prelates, 
nineteen  deputies,  chosen  by  towns,  and  nineteen  delegates,  elected 
by  landholders,  to  represent  the  rural  districts. 

II.— (1.)  The  legislature  assembles  once  in  three  years,  to  regu- 
late taxes  and  supervise  laws.  (2.)  The  duke  is  hereditary  ruler, 
and  is  assisted  by  three  ministers  of  his  own  appointment.  (3.) 
For  administrative  purposes,  the  state  is  divided  into  six  circles,  or 
provinces.  (4.)  Over  each  of  these  a  board  of  officers  is  established, 
to  conduct  the  affairs  of  towns  and  villages.  (5  )  The  Duchy  of 
Brunswick  has  two  votes  in  the  plenum,  or  full  assembly  of  the  Ger- 
man Confederation. 

THE    KINGDOM    OF    SAXONY. 

III. — (1.)  Descendants  of  ancient  Saxons,  whose  soldiers  once 
invaded  and  conquered  Britain,  now  occupy  a  part  of  German 
territory  possessed  by  their  ancestors.  (2.)  They  are  governed 
under  the  form  of  a  limited  hereditary  monarchy  called  Saxony. 

IV. — (1.)  The  king  and  a  legislature  of  two  chambers  compose 
the  law-making  power.  (2.)  The  government  is  administered  by 
the  monarch  through  officers  of  his  own  appointment. 

v. — (1.)  The  higher  legislative  chamber  is  composed  of  princes 
of  the  royal  family,  certain  specified  nobles  and  public  officers,  who 
sit  by  privilege,  twelve  deputies  chosen  by  the  largest  laud-proprie- 
tors for  life,  and   ten  members  nominated  for   life  by  the  king. 

(4.)  How  is  the  lower  chamber  formed? 

II. — (1.)  What  does  the  legislature  do?  (2.)  What  is  the  Duke  of  Bruns- 
wick? (3.)  How  is  the  state  divided?  (4.)  What  is  placed  over  each  circle? 
(5.)  What  proportion  of  influence  has  Brunswick  in  the  German  Confede- 
ration ? 

III.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Saxons?  (2.)  Under  what  form  are  they 
governed  ? 

rV. — (1.)  What  is  the  law-making  power  of  Saxony?  (2.)  How  is  govern- 
ment administered  ? 

V. — (1.)  How  is  the  higher  chamber  constituted? 


Brunswick — Saxony— W  irtemburg,  271 

(2.)  The  lower  chamber  consists  of  twenty  delegates  elected  by 
large  landholders,  twenty-five  chosen  by  towns,  twenty-five  repre- 
senting rural  districts,  and  five  chosen  by  traders  and  artisans. 
(3.)  A  substitute  is  appointed  for  each  member  of  the  lower  cham- 
bers, to  act  in  case  of  the  death  or  disability  of  his  principal, 

VI. — (1.)  Judicial  affairs  are  conducted  in  Saxony  by  three 
classes  of  courts,  over  which  is  a  supreme  court,  held  at  Dresden, 
the  capital.  (2.)  Magistrates  are  generally  selected  from  the  pro- 
prietors of  land  and  nobility. 

VII. — (1.)  The  kingdom  of  Saxony  is  one  of  the  states  of  the 
German  Confederation.  (2.)  It  casts  four  votes  in  the  plenum,  or 
full  council. 

THE    KINGDOM    OF    WURTEMBURG. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  kingdom  of  Wurtemburg  is  another  state  of 
the  German  Confederation,  having  four  votes  in  the  full  council. 
(2.)  It  is  governed  as  a  hereditary  constitutional  monarchy. 
(3.)  The  king  and  a  parliament"  of  two  chambers  constitute  the 
legislative  power. 

IX. — (1.)  The  upper  chamber  is  composed  of  hereditary  nobles 
and  land-proprietors,  sitting  for  life.  (2.)  The  lower  chamber  is 
representative,  having  ninety-four  delegates  chosen  by  the  large 
towns  and  village  districts.  (3.)  A  supreme  court  forms  the  chief 
tribunal  of  justice.  (4.)  There  are  courts  in  each  of  the  Four  circles 
or  departments  of  the  kingdom. 

(2.)  Of  what  does  the  lower  chamber  consist?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  a  substi- 
tute ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  is  the  Saxon  judiciary?  (2.)  What  persons  are  magis- 
trates ? 

VII — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  kingdom  of  Sa.\ony  ?  (2.)  What  is  its  influ- 
ence in  that  confederation  ? 

Vni — (1.)  What  is  the  kingdom  of  Wurtemburg?  (2.)  What  is  its  form 
government?     (3.)  What  coustitite  the  legislative  power? 

IX. — (1.)  Of  what  is  the  upper  chamber  composed?  (2.)  What  is  said  of 
the  lower  chamber?  (3.)  What  is  the  chief  judicial  tribunal?  (4.)  What 
minor  courts  are  there  ? 


272  History  of  Governments. 

X. — (1.)  The  people  of  Wartemburg  are  descendanis  of  ancient 
Frankish  and  other  German  tribes.  (2.)  Their  territory  formerly 
belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  France. 

XL — (1.)  Smaller  kingdoms,  duchies,  and  principalities,  forming 
the  German  Confederation,  are  governed  more  or  less  like  those 
here  cited  as  examples.  (2.)  The  usual  apportionment  of  legislative 
power  is  between  hereditary  land  proprietors,  or  nobility  and  clergy, 
on  one  side,  and  on  the  other,  representatives  of  the  towns  and 
peasantry.  (3.)  A  few  of  the  small  states  are  still  governed 
according  to  feudal  usages,  and  the  common  people  possess  no  rights 
whatever.  (4.)  The  examples  given  suffice  to  explain  various 
descriptions  of  governments  exercised  in  German  states. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE      DANISH      KINGDOM. 


I. (1.)  The   inhabitants  of   Denmark  are  descendants  of   the 

people  called  Scandinavians.  (2.)  The  Scandinavians  belonged 
to  that  great  family  of  barbarians  who  conquered  the  Eoman 
empire.  (3.)  They  invaded  England  and  France  under  the  gene- 
ral name  of  Northmen  or  Normans. 


X.— (1.)  What  are  the  people  of  Wurtemburg?  (2.)  To  what  country  did 
their  territory  belong  ? 

XI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  other  States  of  the  German  Confederation? 
(2.)  What  is  the  usual  apportionment  of  legislative  power  in  each  of  them  •; 
(3.)  How  are  a  few  small  states  governed  ?     (4.)  What  is  said  of  the  examples 

given? 

I_ (1.)    From   what   race    are   the   inhabitants   of    Denmark    descended? 

(2.)  To  what  family  did  the  Scandinavians  belong  ?     (3.)  What  countries  did 
they  invade  ■" 


The  Danish  Kingdom  273 

H. — (1.)  These  people  were  originally  separated  in  small  tribes 
or  clans,  as  were  all  Gothic  races.  (2.)  They  combined  at  diflfereut 
periods  to  form  the  three  nations  of  Danes,  Norwegians,  and 
Swedes. 

III. — (1.)  The  Danes  established  an  independent  kingdom,  with 
a  sovereign  elected  by  three  divisions  of  the  population.  (2.)  First 
were  nobles,  second  clergy,  third  the  common  people.  (3.)  This 
elective  form  continued  till  1660,  when  it  was  changed  to  an  abso- 
lute hereditary  monarchy.  (4.)  It  has  since  been  modified,  and 
the  king  governs  by  a  constitution. 

rV. — (1.)  The  sovereign  of  Denmark  must  be  a  member  of  the 
Lutheran  church,  which  is  the  state  religion.  (2.)  He  is  assisted 
in  legislation  by  a  diet,  or  parliament,  composed  of  two  houses. 
(3.)  The  upper  bouse,  or  senate,  is  called  the  Landesthing,  or 
Landholder's  Court.  (4.)  Any  citizen  who  pays  two  hundred 
rix-dollars  per  year  in  taxes,  or  has  an  income  of  twelve  hundred 
rix-doUars  per  annum,  may  be  elected  a  senator,  provided  he  is 
forty-one  years  old. 

V".~(l.)  The  lower  body,  or  house  of  commons,  is  called  the 
VoUcsthi'ng,  or  People's  Court.  (2.)  Any  citizen  who  is  entitled  to 
vote,  and  is  twenty-five  years  old,  may  be  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Volksthing  (3.)  The  right  to  vote  is  enjoyed  by  every  house- 
holder thirty  years  old,  who  is  of  sane  mind  and  not  indebted  to  the 
government. 

VI. — (1.)  Members  of  the  Landesthing   are   chosen  for  eigh^ 

n. — (1.)  How  were  the  early  Northmen  originally  separated  ?  (2.)  What  ia 
said  of  their  combinations  ? 

m. — (1.)  What  did  the  Danes  establish?  (2.)  What  were  the  divisions? 
(3.)  When  was  the  elective  form  of  monarchy  changed?  (4.)  What  has  since 
taken  place  ? 

rV. — (1.)  What  is  required  of  the  Danish  sovereign?  (2.)  How  is  he 
assisted?  (o.)  What  is  said  of  the  upper  house?  (4.)  What  persons  may 
become  senators  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  is  the  lower  chamber  of  Danish  legislators?  (2.)  WT».at 
persons  may  become  members  of  the  Volksthing  ?  (3.)  What  persons  have 
the  right  to  vote  in  Denmark  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  is  tlie  term  for  which  members  of  the  Landesthing  are 

12* 


274  History  of  Governments. 

years.     ^^2.)  Those  of  tlie  Yolkestbing  are  chosen  for  three  years 
(3.)  The  Diet  of  Denmark  holds  annual  sessions. 

VII. — (1.)  Several  provinces  annexed  to  the  Danish  government 
retain  their  own  institutions  and  laws.  (2.)  Among  them  are 
Schleswig  and  Holstein,  fornierly  German  states. 


CHAPTER   IS. 

NORWAY     AND     SWEDEN. 

I. — (1.)  Norway  was  formerly  an  independent  hereditary  king- 
dom. (2.)  It  subsequently  became  a  limited  monarchy,  with  demo- 
cratic institutions,  and  was  finally  united  as  a  joint  kingdom  with 
Sweden.  (3.)  The  king  of  Sweden  is  also  sovereign  of  Norway, 
and  each  nation  has  its  own  parliament  and  constitution. 

II. — (1.)  The  legislature  of  Norway  is  called  the  Storthing,  or 
Great  Court.  (2.)  It  is  divided  into  two  chambers,  one  comprising 
one-fourth,  and  the  other  three-quarters  of  the  members  chosen 
(3.)  The  smallest  chamber  is  called  the  Lagthing,  the  largest  is 
called  the  Oddsthing.  (4.)  Each  chooses  its  own  president  and 
secretary,  but  all  measures  must  be  originated  in  the  larger  body. 

III. — (1.)  Laws  and  modifications  may  be  presented  to  the 
legislature  either  by  its  members  or  by  the  government.  (2.)  The 
king  possesses    a    veto  power,  but  the  votes  of  three  successive 

chosen?  (2.)  How  long  are  members  of  the  Volksthing  elected  to  serve  ? 
(3.)  When  does  the  Diet  meet  ? 

Vn. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Danish  provinces?  (2.)  What  provinces  are 
mentioned  ? 

L — (1.)  What  was  Norway  formerly?  (2.)  What  did  it  subsequently 
become?     (3.)  Who  is  sovereign  of  Norway? 

H. — (1.)  What  is  the  Norwegian  legislature?  (2.)  How  is  the  Storthing  di- 
vided? (3.)  What  are  the  two  chambers  called?  (4.)  What  is  said  concern- 
ing them  ? 

TTT- — (1.)  How  are  laws  proposed  in  Norway?     (2.)  What  is  said  of  ths 


Norway  and  Sweden.  275 

Storthings  overrule  a  veto.     (3.)  The  storthing  is  elected  for  three 
years. 

IV. — (1.)  The  Lutheran  religion  is  established  in  both  Sweden 
and  Norway.  (2.)  The  king  must  be  a  professor  of  it,  and  so  must 
all  government  officers.  (3.)  The  right  to  vote  is  general  under  the 
constitution  of  both  kingdoms. 

V. — (1.)  The  educational  and  religious  laws  of  Norway  are 
strict  and  comprehensive.  (2.)  In  Norway,  every  child  is  obliged 
to  be  confirmed  in  the  Lutlieran  church  between  the  ages  of  four- 
teen and  seventeen.  (3.)  Confirmation  is  only  allowed  to  be  given 
to  youths  who  can  read.  (4.)  Persons  are  forbidden  to  marry 
unless  they  have  a  certificate  of  contirmatioa,  as  members  of  the 
Lutheran  church.  (5.)  Every  iudividual  who  reaches  twenty  years 
of  age  without  confirmation,  is  liable  to  be  sent  to  a  house  of  cor- 
rection, till  instructed  and  made  eligible  to  receive  the  rite. 

VI. — (1.)  Schools  are  established  in  every  parish  of  Nor- 
way. (2.)  Hospitals  are  erected  iu  all  the  principal  towns,  and 
each  community  is  obliged  to  support  its  local  poor.  (3.)  Begging 
is  punished  as  an  offence  against  the  law. 

VII. — (1.)  Sweden  is  a  hereditary  monarchy,  governed,  like 
Norway,  under  its  own  constitution.  (2.)  The  parliament,  or  Diet, 
of  Sweden  is  composed  of  four  chambers,  meeting  s(-parateiy.  (3.) 
Members  of  the  highest  chamber  represent  the  hereditary  nobility 
of  Sweden.  (4.)  They  comprise  the  heads  of  all  noble  families  iu 
the  kingdom,  wlio  sit  by  right  of  birth. 

veto  power?     (3.)  For  what  term  is  the  Storthing  elected? 

IV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  religion?  (2.)  What  is  required  of  officials? 
(3.)  What  is  said  of  the  right  to  vote  ? 

v.— (1  )  What  laws  are  strict  in  Norway?  (2.)  What  is  enjoined  upon 
every  child?  (5.)  To  what  youths  is  the  rite  of  confirmation  limited?  (4.) 
What  is  forbidden  to  persons  not  confirmed?  (5.)  What  severe  penalty  ia 
made  regarding  confirmation  ? 

VI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Norwegian  schools?  (2.)  What  of  hospit-..,? 
(3.)   How  is  begging  treated  ? 

V'n.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Sweden  ?  (2.)  What  of  the  Swedish  Diet  ?  (%.) 
What  do  niembors  of  the  highest  chamber  represent?  (4.)  What  persons  do 
they  comprise  ? 


276  History  of  Governments. 

VIII.  -(1 )  The  second  chamber  represents  the  clergy  and  church 
interests.  (2.)  Its  nr.euibers  consist  of  the  archbishop,  twelve 
bishops,  and  about  sixty  deputies  from  various  dioceses.  (3.)  The 
third  chamber  represents  inhabitants  of  towns  and  cities,  and  num- 
bers ninety-seven  burghers  or  citizens,  of  whom  the  capital  city, 
Stockholm,  sends  ten. 

IX. — (1.)  The  fourth  chamber  represents  the  rural  districts  of 
Sweden.  (2.)  It  numbers  one  hundred  and  forty-four  deputies, 
chosen  by  the  landholdiug  peasantry. 

X. (1.)  The  votes  of  a  majority  of  three  houses  out  of  the 

four,  with  the  king's  consent,  are  sufficient  to  make  laws.  (2.)  The 
cunstiiution  cannot  be  changed  unless  the  four  chambers  agree  to  it. 
(3.)  The  king  of  Sweden  has  an  absolute  veto  un  laws. 

XI. — (1.)  The  king  of  Sweden  is  responsible  only  through  his 
ministers.  (2.)  He  is  assisted  in  the  administration  of  government 
by  a  council  of  state,  of  his  own  selection.  (3.)  This  council  con- 
sists of  two  ministers  of  justice  and  foreign  affairs,  and  eight  coun- 
sellors. (4.)  Five  of  the  eight  counsellors  are  heads  of  as  many 
departments  of  public  affairs.  (5.)  The  other  three  are  private 
advisers  of  the  monarch. 

XII.— (1.)  The  state  religion,  like  that  of  Norway,  is  Lutheran, 
of  which  the  king  and  priucipal  officers  must  be  professors.  (2.) 
The  sovereign  is  head  of  the  church,  and  appoints  the  higher  clergy 
to  their  offices.  (3.)  The  lower  clergy,  or  preachers  and  pastors, 
are  selected  by  the  people. 

Vm. — (1.)  What  does  the  second  chamber  represent?  (2.)  How  is  it  com- 
posed?    (3.)   What  does  the  third  chamber  represent  and  number? 

IX.— (1.)  What  does  the  fourth  chamber  represent?  (2.)  How  many  mem- 
bers has  it? 

X.— (1.)  What  authority  makes  the  laws?  (2.)  How  is  the  constitution  se- 
cured from  alteration  ?     (3.)  What  power  does  the  king  po.ssess  ? 

XL— (1.)  What  is  the  sovereign's  responsibility?  (2.^  By  what  body  is  he 
assisted?  (3.)  How  is  the  council  of  state  composed?  (4.)  What  are  five  of 
the  eight  counsellors  ?     (,5.)  What  are  the  other  three  ? 

XII.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  liie  state  religion  ?  (2.)  What  relation  does  the 
sovereign  hold  to  it  ?     {S.)  Who  appoints  the  lower  clergy? 


Government  of  Great  Britain.  277 

XIII. — (1.)  The  laws  regarding  education  iu  Sweden  are  very 
strict.  (2.)  Every  parent  is  obliged  to  send  bis  children  to  school, 
or  provide  for  their  instruction  at  home. 

XIV. — (1.)  The  civil  divisions  of  Sweden  and  Xorway  consist 
of  provinces,  counties,  and  parishes.  (2.)  Governors  and  magis- 
trates are  appointed  by  the  sovereign,  to  act  as  royal  officials  and 
judges.  (3.)  There  are  three  superior  courts  in  Sweden,  with  sub- 
ordinate tribunals  for  miuor  causes.  (4.)  District  tribunals,  called 
Harad-courts,  are  the  lowest  and  most  numerous. 


CHAPTER  X. 

GOVERNMENT      OF      GREAT      BRITAIN. 

I. — (1.)  When  the  Roman  state  extended  its  conquests  to  all 
known  lands,  several  generals  invaded  the  islands  now  known  as 
Great  Britain.  (2.)  These  Romans  found  the  country  inhabited  by 
tribes  of  people  whom  they  called  Gauls. 

II. — (1.)  The  natives  were  divided  into  many  tribes,  independent 
of  one  another,  and  each  governed  by  a  headman,  assisted  by  priests. 
(2.)  The  priests,  or  druids,  were  judges  of  the  people.  (3.)  They 
exerted  great  religious  influence  over  individuals  and  the  tribes. 

III. — (1  )  The  Romans  planted  colonies,  and  established  their 
laws  and   magistrates  over  the  Britons.     (2.)  They  afterward  re- 

Xm. — (1.)  What  laws  are  strict?     (2.)  What  is  required  of  every  parent? 

XIV. — (1.)  What  are  the  civil  divisions  of  Sweden  and  Norway?  (2.) 
What  appointments  are  made  by  the  liing?  (3.)  Wliat  is  said  of  the  judi- 
ciary ?     (4.)  What  are  the  lowest  courts? 

I. — (1.)  By  whom  were  the  British  islands  invaded?  (2.)  Who  were  their 
uative  inhabitants  ? 

n. — (1.)  How  were  the  natives  divided?  (2.)  Who  were  judges  of  th* 
people?     (.3.)   What  was  their  authority  ? 

TTT- — (1.)  What  did  the  Rouiana  do?     (2.)  What  afterward  took  place? 


278  History  of  Governments. 

linquished  possession  of  the  country,  and  the  native  tribes  relapsed 
into  wars  among  themselves. 

IV. — (1.)  The  islanders  of  England  were  distinct  from  those  of 
Ireland  and  Scotland.  (2.)  The  former  were  descended  of  a  Gothic 
tribe  called  Angles,  and  the  latter  sprang  from  other  barbarous  in- 
vaders of  earlier  ages.  (3.)  The  inhabitants  of  the  present  Eng- 
lish districts  were  called  Britons  ;  the  others  were  known  as  Picti>h 
and  Scottish  tribes. 

V. — (1.)  After  the  Romans  left  them,  the  Britons  were  not  able 
to  defend  themselves  against  their  wild  neighbors.  (2.)  They  ap- 
pealed to  the  Saxons  of  Germany  for  help,  and  the  latter  nation 
sent  over  an  army  under  several  chiefs.  (3.)  The  Saxons  defeated 
the  Scots  and  Picts,  and  subdued  the  British,  as  the  Romans  had 
previously  done. 

VI. — (1.)  The  conquered  country  was  divided,  under  Saxon 
chiefs,  into  seven  territories.  (2.)  Each  chief  took  possession  of  his 
share,  and  established  an  independent  kingdom.  (3.)  The  seven 
kingdoms  continued  separate  nearly  four  hundred  years,  after  which 
they  were  united  in  a  single  nation. 

VII. — (1.)  Under  Alfred,  a  king  of  the  combined  Saxon  nations, 
the  foundation  of  English,  or  Anglo-Saxon,  monarchy  was  laid. 
(2.)  This  monarch  organized  a  plan  of  government,  and  established 
many  excellent  laws,  that  are  in  operation  even  at  the  present 
time. 

VIII. — (1.)  Alfred  divided  all  the  English  territory  into  dis- 
tricts, called  counties.     (2.)  These  counties  were  again  divided  into 

IV.— (1.)  What  distinctions  were  there  between  inhabitants  of  the  British 
islands?  (2.)  What  is  said  concerning  the  different  islanders?  (3.)  What 
were  the  names  of  ancient  island  tribes? 

V. (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Britons?     (2.)   What  took   place?     (3.)  What 

did  the  Saxons  do? 

VI. (1.)  What  was  done  with  the  conq-uered  country?     (2.)  What  did  each 

Saxon  chief  do?     (3  '  What  is  said  of  the  seven  kingdoms? 

Vn.— (1.)  When  was  the  foundation  of  Anglo-Saxon  monarchy  laid?  (2.; 
What  did  the  monarch  do  ? 

VIII. (1.)  What  territorial  divisions  did  Alfred  make?     (2.)  How  were  the 


Government  of  Great  Britain.  279 

portions  termed  hundreds.     (3.)  The  hundreds  were  separated  into 
smaller  parts,  known  as  tithings,  or  fribourgs. 

IX. — (1.)  A  tithing  consisted  of  ten  householders  living  in  one 
neighborhood.  (2.)  Over  every  tithing  one  man  was  appointed  as 
head,  called  a  tithing-raan,  or  borgh-holder.  (3.)  The  word  horgh, 
in  Saxon,  signified  ''security,''^  and  the  borgh-holder  was  security  for 
the  ten  men  of  his  tithing.  (4.)  Each  householder  of  a  tithing  was 
responsible  for  the  conduct  of  his  own  family. 

X. — (1.)  Every  inhabitant  was  obliged  to  register  himself  a.s 
belonging  to  some  tithing,  or  he  was  liable  to  punishment  as  au 
outlaw.  (2.)  No  householder  was  allowed  to  change  his  habitation 
without  permission  of  the  tithing-man,  or  borgh-holder. 

XI. — (1.)  When  any  person  was  accused  of  offence  against  law, 
the  borgh-holder  was  first  summoned  to  answer.  (2.)  If  the  borgh- 
holder  refused  to  become  responsible,  the  offender  was  sent  to  prison 
to  be  tried.  (3.)  If  he  effected  his  escape,  his  borgh-holder  was 
liable  to  punishment  or  penalty. 

XII. — (1.)  The  borgh-holder  was  judge  in  all  matters  of  differ- 
ence between  householders  of  his  tithing.  (2.)  He  usually  called 
the  whole  ten  together  and  laid  the  matter  of  dispute  before  them 
for  decision.  (3.)  If  tlie  judgment  were  unsatisfactory,  an  ap[»cal 
could  be  made  from  the  tithing  to  the  hundred. 

XIII. — (1.)  The  hundred,  or  wapentake,  consisted  of  ten  tithings, 
or  one  hundred  families  of  freemen.     (2.)  It  had  regular  meetings 

counties  divided?     (S.)  How  were  the  hundreds  separated? 

IX.— (1.)  What  was  a  tithing?  (2.)  What  was  a  borgh-holder?  (:i.)  Whiu 
is  said  concferning  the  word  '■^  borc/hj"  (4.)  For  what  was  a  householder 
responsible  ? 

X. — (1.)  What  was  required  of  every  inhabitant?  (2.)  Wliat  restriction  was 
placed  on  householders  ? 

XL— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  borgh  holder  ?  (2.)  What  was  done  if  the 
borgh-holder  would  not  be  responsible  ?  (3.)  To  what  was  a  horgh-holdei 
liable  ? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  authority  had  the  borgh-holder?     (2.)  What  did  he  usually 
do?     (3.)  To  what  authority  could  an  appeal  be  made  ? 
'      Xm. — (1.)  Of  what    did   a   wapentike  consist?     (2.)   What   is  said   of  it* 


28o  History  of  Governments. 

once  a  month,  to  hear  and  determine  all  causes.  (3.)  Twelve  free- 
holders were  chosen  out  of  the  assembly,  who  were  sworn  to  decide 
impartially,  and  each  cause  was  confided  to  their  deliberation. 
(4.)  This  was  the  origin  of  trial  by  jury  in  England. 

XrV. — (1.)  The  next  court  above  an  assembly  of  the  hundred 
was  called  a  County  Court.  (2.)  This  body  convened  twice  in 
t'very  year,  and  was  composed  of  ail  the  freeholders  in  a  county. 
(3.)  The  bishops  and  aldermen  were  presidents  of  the  county  ccjurts. 
(4.)  All  appeals  from  the  tithings  and  hundreds,  and  all  disputes 
between  different  hundreds,  were  passed  upon  in  this  assembly. 

XV. — (1.)  The  alderman,  or  governor,  of  a  county  was  usually 
the  chief  noble  and  land  proprietor.  (2.)  The  bishop  was  head  of 
the  priests,  who  officiated  as  teachers  of  the  people.  (3.)  Another 
officer,  called  a  Shire-rieve,  or  sheriff,  was  appointed  by  the  king  to 
collect  taxes  and  fines,  and  represent  the  royal  authority  in  the 
assembly  of  the  county. 

XVI. — (1.)  All  questions  not  satisfactorily  decided  in  the  lower 
courts,  were  reserved  for  the  king's  judgment.  (2.)  The  county 
courts,  or  assemblies,  were  termed  Shire-motes.  (3.)  Freeholders 
who  composed  them  were  each  entitled  to  one  vote  in  all  matters 
of  business. 

XVII. — (1.)  When  fines  or  penalties  were  imposed  by  a  shire- 
mote,  one-third  of  the  amount  was  received  by  the  alderman  or  earl. 
(2.)  The  remaining  two-thirds  were  paid  to  the  sheriff,  to  go  into 
the  royal  treasury. 

meetings?  (3.)  What  body  of  freeholders  was  chosen  as  a  minor  court? 
^4.)  Of  what,  was  this  body  the  origin? 

XTV. — (1.)  What  was  the  next  court  above  an  assembly  of  the  Hundred? 
,2.)  What  is  said  of  this  body?  (3.)  Who  presided  over  county  courts? 
(4.)  A\  hat,  business  was  transacted  in  these  courts  ? 

XV.-(1.)  What  is  said  of  the  alderman?  (2.)  What  of  the  bishop?  (3.) 
What  other  officer  is  mentioned  ? 

XVL— (1.)  What  was  done  with  questions  not  terminated  in  lower  courts? 
(2.)  What  were  county  assemblies  called?  (3.)  To  what  were  their  members 
entitled  ? 

XVn.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  fines  or  penalties?  (2.)  What  amount  was 
paid  to  the  sheriflf? 


Government  of  Great  Britain.  28 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  aristocratic  class  of  Saxons  was  composed  of 
two  ranks,  called  Thanes,  or  nobles.  (2.)  Those  of  higher  rank 
were  termed  king's  thanes,  or  nobles  who  received  their  laud  by  the 
king's  grant.  (3.)  The  lower  rank  consisted  of  nobles  who  held 
estates  by  paying  rents  or  military  service  to  the  king's  thanes. 

XIX. — (1.)  Any  merchant  who  made  three  long  sea  voyages 
on  his  own  account,  was  entitled  by  one  of  tlie  Saxon  laws  to  be 
called  a  thane.  (2.)  Another  law  provided  that  a  farmer  who 
owned  five  hides  of  land,  or  a  thousand  acres,  and  possessed  a  chapel, 
a  kitchen,  a  ball  and  a  bell,  might  claim  to  be  a  thane,  or  inferior 
noble. 

XX. — (1.)  Farmers  and  freemen  of  the  untitled  classes  were 
called  Ceoiks,  or  churls.  (2.)  They  were  tenants  on  the  land  owned 
by  thanes.  (3.)  All  below  the  churls  were  considered  to  be  slaves. 
,  (4.)  Prisoners  taken  in  war,  among  early  Saxons,  were  made  slaves, 
and  confined  to  the  land  as  menials  and  laborers.  (5.)  Many  of 
the  original  Britons  were  made  slaves  by  their  Saxon  conquerors. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  greater  portion  of  soil  under  Anglo-Saxon 
government  was  divided  into  crowivlauds,  or  estates  belonging  to 
the  king,  lands  of  the  church,  and  lands  of  the  thanes.  (2.)  The 
remainder  was  cultivated  or  occupied  by  small  freeholders  and  in- 
habitants of  cities  and  villages.  (3.)  These  lands  were  classed  in 
two  kinds — Book-land,  which  was  held  by  registry  in  a  book,  and 
Folk-land,  held  by  lease,  from  time  to  time. 

XXII. — (1.)  The  military  force  of  Anglo-Saxons  consisted  of 
militia,  or  citizen  soldiers.     (2.)  Every  thousand  acres  was  obliged 

XVin. — (1.)  What  constituted  the  Saxon  aristocracy?  (2.)  What  were 
the  king's  thanes  ?     (3.)  Of  what  nobles  did  the  lower  rank  consist  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  How  could  nobilitv  be  obtnined  by  other  persons?  (2.)  What 
Other  law  made  provision  for  obtaining  nobility  V 

XX.— (1.)  What  were  freemen  of  the  untitled  classes  called?  (2.)  What 
was  their  position?  (3.)  How  were  persons  below  the  churls  regarded? 
(4.)  What  persons  were  made  slaves  by  early  Saxons?  (o.)  What  is  said  of 
original  Britons? 

XXI. — (1.)  How  was  the  soil  divided?  (2.)  How  was  the  remainder  used? 
(3.)  How  were  these  lands  classed  ? 

XXn.— (1.)  Of  what  did   the   military  force  consist?     (2.)  How    were   ihi 


iSl  History  of  Governments. 

to  furnish  a  man  in  time  of  war  ;  and  in  seasons  of  danger,  every 
freeman  was  summoned  to  bear  arms.  (3.)  The  general  force  of 
the  kingdom,  under  these  regulations,  comprised  about  fifty  thousand 
men. 

XXIII. — (1.)  The  Anglo-Saxon  frame  of  government  continued 
in  England  till  the  island  was  iuvaded  and  subdued  by  Normans 
from  France.  (2.)  William,  the  Norman  conqueror,  established  his 
power  by  making  grants  of  territory  in  England  to  his  principal 
captains  and  nobles. 

XXIV. — (1.)  The  government  of  England,  under  William's 
successors,  remained  for  many  centuries  a  monarchy,  more  or  less 
absolute,  according  to  the  personal  character  of  a  king.  (2.)  The 
administration  of  civil  and  military  affairs  was  intrusted  to  persons 
selected  from  the  landed  aristocracy. 

XXV. — (1.)  After  the  Normans  settled  on  English  lands,  the 
administration  of  law  and  justice  was  made  to  conform  to  the  feudal 
system.  (2.)  At  times,  as  in  France,  thi  re  was  a  parliament  assem- 
bled. (3.)  This  was  a  national  council,  composed  of  the  nobility, 
or  barons,  of  England.  (4.),  The  affairs  of  counties  and  cities  were 
conducted  under  a  mixed  system  of  ancient  Saxon  customs  and 
feudal  usages,  by  local  magistrates  and  courts. 

XXVI. — (1.)  A  share  in  the  legislative  branch  of  the  English 
government  was  afterward  extended  from  nobility  or  barons,  to 
other  classes  of  the  people.  (2.)  The  frame  of  government  changed 
from  an  oligarchy,  consisting  of  monarch  and  lords,  to  an  aristo- 
cracy, formed  of  king,  nobility,  and  certain  privileged  classes. 

forces  raised  ?     (3.)  What  was  the  general  strength  of  this  militia  ? 

XXm. — (1  )  How  long  did  Anglo-Saxon  government  last?  (2.)  What  did 
William  the  Norman  do  '? 

XXTV. — (1.)  What  government  was  established  by  the  Normans?  ("2.) 
What  persons  exercised  authority  ? 

XXV. — (1.)  To  what  system  was  the  administration  made  to  conferm  ? 
(2.)  What  was  assembled  at  times?  (3.)  Of  what  persons  was  the  parliament 
•  composed?     (4.)  How  were  town  and  county  aflfa.rs  conducted  ? 

XXVI. — (1.)  How  was  the  legislative  power  extended?  (2.)  How  did  the 
frame  of  government  change  ? 


Government  of  Great  Britain.  283 

XXVII. — (1.)  At  the  present  time,  the  constitutioual  govern- 
ment of  great  Britain  rests  upon  a  hierarchal  aristocracy.  (2.)  It 
is  composed  of  three  legislative  departments,  one  of  which  is  also 
the  executive,  or  administration.  (3.)  These  three  departments  are 
the  House  of  Commons,  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  queen,  assisted 
by  her  ministers,  or  Privy  Council. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  The  House  of  Commons  is  composed  of  six  hun- 
dred and  fifty-eight  members.  (2.)  Two  hundred  and  fifty-three  of 
these  are  chosen  from  counties,  three  hundred  and  ninety-nine  from 
cities  and  towns,  called  boroughs,  and  six  from  the  universities,  or 
colleges  of  Great  Britain. 

XXIX. —  (1.)  No  person  is  entitled  to  vote  for  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  unless  he  be  possessed  of  a  certain  amount 
of  property,  or  pays  a  certain  yearly  rent.  (2,)  The  privilege  of 
voting  for  a  borough  member  is  gained  by  any  citizen  who  occupies 
a  house  for  which  he  pays  fifty  dollars  yearly  rent.  (3.)  The  right 
to  vote  for  a  county  member  of  parliament  is  possessed  by  a  citizen 
who  owns  land  or  houses  valued  at  fifty  dollars  a  year,  or  pays  a 
yearly  rent  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 

XXX. — (1.)  A  session  of  the  House  of  Commons  cannot  extend 
to  more  than  seven  years.  (2.)  Four  hundred  and  seventy-one  mem- 
bers are  elected  from  England,  one  hundred  and  five  from  Ireland, 
fifty-three  from  Scotland,  and  twenty-nine  from  Wales. 

XXXI. — (1.)  The  House  of  Lords  is  composed  of  persons 
belonging  to  the  titled  aristocracy,  or  peerage  of  Great  Britain. 


XXVn. — (1.)  On  what  does  the  government  of  Great  Britain  now  rest? 
(2.)  How  is  it  composed?     (3.)  What  are  the  three  departments? 

XXVni. — (1.)  Of  what  number  of  members  is  the  House  of  Commona 
composed?     (,2.)  How  are  these  variously  chosen? 

XXIX. — (1.)  How  is  the  privilege  of  voting  restricted?  (2.)  How  is  the 
privilege  of  voting  for  a  Dorough  member  gained  ?  (:;.)  How  may  a  person 
be  privileged  to  vote  lor  a  county  member  of  parliament? 

XXX. — ;1.)  To  what  terra  of  years  is  a  parliamentary  session  limited' 
(2.)  How  ;ire  England,  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Wales  proportionately  repre- 
sented in  parliament  ? 

XXXI. — (1.)  Uou  is  t'-.v;  "^-^use  of  Lords  composed  ' 


284  History  of  Governments. 

(2.)  They  are  distinguished  as  lords  temporal  and  lords  spiritual. 
(3.)  The  lords  temporal  occupy  seats  by  right  of  birth,  as  repre- 
sentatives of  privileged  families  to  which  they  belong.  (4.)  The 
lords  spiritual  are  bishops  and  archbishops  of  the  English  church, 
established  by  law  as  the  hierarchy  of  the  country. 

XXXII.— (1.)  The  House  of  Lords  is  classified  according  to 
the  rank  of  its  members  in  the  nobility.  (2.)  Princes  of  the  royal 
blood  are  highest,  and  the  other  lords  consist  of  English-archbishops, 
dukes,  marquises,  earls,  viscounts,  English  bishops,  Irish  prelates, 
barons,  representative  peers  of  Scotland,  and  representative  peers 
of  Ireland.  (3.)  The  monarch  has  power  to  create  new  peers 
from  the  untitled  classes,  when  it  is  desirable  to  do  so. 

XXXIII. — (1.)  The  two  houses  of  lords  and  commons,  and  the 
monarch,  compose  a  legislature  called  the  Imperial  Parliament. 
(2.)  They  are  supposed  to  represent  the  three  estates  or  conditions, 
of  sovereignty,  nobility,  and  citizenship. 

XXXIV. — (I.)  The  parliaments  pass  laws,  impose  taxes, 
borrow  money,  and  watch  over  the  different  branches  of  adminis- 
tration. (2.)  The  assent  of  the  sovereign  is  necessary  before  any 
act  of  parliament  becomes  binding.  (3.)  All  propositions  for  the 
raising  of  money  for  government  expenses  must  originate  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  (4.)  This  insures  to  the  lower,  or  popular, 
body,  the  power  of  checking  any  improper  action  of  tlie  aristocratic 
branch  of  legislation. 

XXXV. (1.)  The  House  of  Commons  elects  from  its  members 

a  presiding  oflBcer  called  the  Speaker.    (2.)  Communications  between 

(2.)  How  are  the  members  distinguished  ?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  lords  tem- 
poral ?     (4  )  What  of  the  lords  spiritual  ? 

XXXII. — (1.)  How  is  the  House  of  Lords  classified?  (2.)  What  are  the 
various  ranks?     (3.)  What  power  has  the  monarch  ? 

XXXni. — (1.)  What  do  the  two  houses  compose  ?  (2.)  What  are  they 
supposed  to  represent? 

XXXIV. — (1.)  What  authority  is  exercised  by  Parliament  ?  (2.)  What  is 
necessary  to  make  a  law?  (3.)  Where  must  propositions  to  raise  money  origi- 
na*^ '    (4.)  What  does  this  insure  ? 

XXXV. — (1.)  What  does  the  House  of  Commons  elect?  (2.)  What  is  said 
of  the  speaker  1 


Government  of  Great  Britain.  285 

the  lower  house  .and  the  sovereign  pass  through  this  officer,  and  it 
is  his  duty  to  preserve  order  during  the  deliberations  of  members. 

XXXVI. — (1.)  Propositions  submitted  for  action  in  Parliament 
pass  through  regular  forms  of  discussion  and  examination.  (2.) 
They  are  presented  in  writing  and  referred  to  some  committee. 
(3.)  They  are  then  read  and  considered  three  times  before  being 
finally  passed  upon.  (4.)  If  not  rejected  before  the  final  vote  is 
taken,  a  majority  of  all  the  members  of  parliament  are  required  to 
vote  upon  their  fiual  passage. 

XXXVII. — (1.)  A  proposition  of  any  measure  is  called  a  bill, 
and  after  the  passage  of  a  bill,  it  is  known  as  an  act  of  parliament. 
(2.)  Every  bill  must  go  through  the  same  process  of  consideration 
and  voting,  in  both  houses  of  parliament,  before  it  is  presented  to 
the  sovereign.  (3.)  When  sanctioned  and  signed  by  the  sovereign, 
it  becomes  a  law  of  the  land. 

XXXVIII. — (1.)  Either  house  may  reject  a  bill  passed  by  the 
other,  or  return  it  with  alterations  or  amendments.  (2.)  If  that 
branch  of  the  legislature  in  which  the  bill  originated  agrees  to  the 
alterations  made,  it  becomes  an  act,  but  if  otherwise,  it  is  rejected. 

XXXIX. — (1.)  The  sovereign  of  Great  Britain  is  the  execu- 
tive power,  or  administration.  (2.)  The  dignity  of  king  or  queen  is 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Brunswick.  (3.)  All  government  busi- 
ness is  supervised,  treaties  made,  taxes  called  fur,  war  declared,  and 
the  laws  of  the  country  enforced,  through  officials  supervised  by 
monarch  and  council. 

XL. — (I.)  Agents  acting  under  government  are  appointed  by 

XXXVI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  propositions  in  parliament?  (2.)  Wliat  is 
the  first  action  taken  on  them?  (!?.)  How  are  they  proceeded  with?  (4.) 
What  is  requisite  for  tlieir  determination  ? 

XXXVn. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  a  bill?  (2.)  Through  what  process 
must  every  bill  go  ?     (3.)  When  does  a  bill  become  a  law  ? 

XXXVIII.— (1.)  What  may  either  house  do  to  a  bill?  (2.)  What  is  neces- 
sary after  alterations  are  made  in  a  bill  ? 

XXXIS.— (1.)  Wliat  is  the  sovereign  of  Great  Britain  ?  (2.)  In  what  family 
is  the  dignity  hereditary  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  public  affairs  ? 

XL.— (1.)  How  are  appointments  made? 


286  History  of  Governments. 

the  sovereign,  through  the  ministers.  (2.)  Judges,  military  and 
civil  ofiBcers,  ambassadors,  consuls,  tax-collectors,  and  others 
required  for  public  service,  receive  their  authority  from  the  crown. 
(3.)  The  sovereign  controls  the  army  and  colonial  governments, 
through  the  great  officers  of  state,  who  form  the  ministry. 

XLI. — (1.)  The  British  ministry,  or  cabinet,  is  selected  by  the 
sovereign,  and  dismissed  at  pleasure.  (2.)  Each  cabinet  minister  is 
at  the  head  of  some  important  branch  of  the  administration.  (3.) 
Cabinet  ministers  are  generally  appointed  from  the  leading  men  of 
the  nation,  and  authorized  to  explain  and  defend  the  action  of  the 
administration  before  parliament. 

XLII. — (1.)  The  chief  cabinet  officer  is  the  Premier,  or  prime 
minister.  (2.)  He  is  called  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  and  over- 
sees the  expenditures  and  receipts  of  public  money.  (3.)  He  is  the 
principal  officer  of  state,  under  the  sovereign. 

XLiIII. — (1.)  The  next  cabinet  minister  is  called  Lord  High- 
Chancellor.  (2.)  He  is  the  chief  judge  of  the  kingdom,  and  pre- 
sides in  the  House  of  Lords.  (3.)  He  is  the  principal  law  adviser 
of  the  sovereign  and  cabinet. 

XLIV. — (1.)  Five  secretaries  of  State  come  next  in  the  royal 
ministry.  (2.)  One  has  charge  of  affairs  in  the  English  kingdom, 
and  is  called  the  Home  Secretary.  (3.)  Another  is  Secretary  of 
Foreign  Affairs.  (4.)  A  third  is  the  Colonial  Secretary,  having 
superintendence  of  British  colonies  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  (5.)  A 
fourth  is  the  Secretary  of  War  ;  and  a  fifth  is  Secretary  of  Ireland, 
having  care  of  that  island.     (6.)  A  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 

(2.)  Whence  does  civil  and  militarv  auUaority  proceed?  (3.)  How  are  subor- 
dinate departments  controlled  '■' 

XLI. — (1.)  How  is  the  cabinet  appointed?  (2.)  What  is  the  position  of  a 
cabinet  minister  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  cabinet  ministers  ? 

XLII. — (1.)  What  is  the  Preinier?  (2.)  Wliat  title  and  authority  has  he? 
(3.)  What  is  his  position  in  the  government? 

XLm.— (1.)  What  is  the  next  cabinet  minister  called  ?  (2.)  What  is  his 
position?     (3.)   What  relation  does  he  hold  to  tlie  sovereign? 

XLIV. — (1.)  What  officials  come  next  in  the  ministry?  (2.)  What  is  one 
of  these  secretaries?  (3.)  What  is  another?  (4.)  What  is  the  third  ?  (5.) 
What  are  the  fourth  and  litth  ?     (6.)   What  other  officers  are  there  ? 


Government  of  Great  Britain.  287 

First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  aud  oiber.high  officers,  make  up  the 
number  of  twelve  cabinet  ministers. 

XLiV. — (1.)  The  ministers  are  considered  to  be  responsible  for 
all  errors  of  government.  (2.)  They  may  be  tried  by  parliament, 
on  impeachment,  for  any  serious  charge.  (3.)  The  sovereign  is 
never  supposed  to  be  wrong,  but  all  accountability  for  bad  govern- 
ment rests  upon  the  ministry,  or  cabinet. 

XLVI. — (1.)  The  sovereign  may  choose  a  private  council  for 
advisers,  besides  the  cabinet.  (2.)  The  privy  council  have  no 
share  in  the  government,  unless  appointed  to  act  in  some  depart- 
ment by  the  sovereign.  (3.)  When  so  appointed,  they  become 
responsible  for  their  own  conduct  of  affairs. 

XLVII. — (1.)  The  sovereign  of  Great  Britain  is  regarded  as 
bead  of  the  state  religion,  or  Episcopal  Church  of  England.  (2.)  He 
or  she  nominates  all  the  bishops  belonging  to  that  church,  and 
appoints  many  of  the  inferior  clergy. 

XL VIII. — (1.)  The  civil  laws  of  England  are  classified  under 
two  heads.  (2.)  All  laws  established  by  acts  of  parliament  form 
one  class,  called  Written,  or  Statute  Law.  (8.)  The  other  class 
comprises  ancient  customs,  or  judicial  decisions,  and  is  known  as 
Common  Law. 

XLIX. — (L)  Scotland  and  Ireland,  now  united  with  England 
under  government  of  one  sovereign,  were  formerly  separate  states. 
(2 )  The  magistracy  and  common  law  of  Scotland  differ  in  some 

XLV. — (1.)  What  responsibility  have  the  ministers?  (2.)  How  may  they 
be  proceeded  against?     (3.)   What  responsibility  has  the  sovereign  ? 

XLVI.— (1.)  What  other  body  of  officials  may  be  appointed  by  the  sove- 
reign ?  (2.)  Wliat  is  said  of  the  privy  council?  (3.)  When  do  they  become 
responsible  ? 

XLVII. — (1.)  What  religious,  or  hierarchal,  position  does  the  British  sove- 
reign hold  ?     (2.)    What  power  has  he  in  the  hierarchy  ? 

XLVni. — (1.)  How  are  civil  laws  classified?  (2.)  What  laws  form  one 
class  ?     (3.)   Wha{  does  the  other  class  comprise  ? 

XLIX.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Scotland  and  Ireland?  (2.)  What  laws  and 
magistrates  differ? 


288  History  of  Governments. 

respects  from  those  of  England.  (3.)  The  three  countries,  and  all 
British  possessions,  are  subject  to  parliamentary  legislation  and 
authority  of  the  crown,  through  its  officers 


CHAPTER    XI. 

THE      SPAXISH      MONARCHY. 

I. — (1.)  The  Spanish  people  are  descendants  of  several  mixed 
races,  who  possessed  the  territory  in  former  times.  (2.)  They  are 
governed  by  hereditary  monarclis,  under  a  written  constitution. 
(3.)  The  supreme  legislative  body  is  called  the  Cortes.  (4.)  It 
consists  of  two  houses,  higher  and  lower,  called  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Deputies. 

II. —  (1.)  The  senate  is  an  aristocratic  council,  consistinsr  of 
members  appointed  for  life  by  the  monarch.  (2.)  It  is  generally 
composed  of  the  hereditary  nobility,  or  grandees,  of  the  kingdom 
(3.)  The  house  of  deputies  is  elective,  the  members  being  namea 
by  electoral  colleges  chosen  from  the  people.  (4.)  One  deputy  is 
allowed  to  fifty  thousand  inhabitants. 

III. — (1.)  Each  deputy  is  chosen  for  a  term  of  five  years.  (2.) 
Tlie  consent  of  the  house  of  deputies,  the  monarch,  and  the  senate, 
is  required  for  the  passage  of  all  laws.  (3.)  Measures  for  the  rais- 
ii:g  of  money  must  originate  in  the  house  of  deputies. 

IV. — (1.)  The  house  of  deputies  may  be  dissolved  at  any  time 
by  the  monarch,  provided  another  is  called  to  assemble  within  three 

(?,'.)  What  laws  are  common  to  the  three  countries? 

L — (1.)  What  are  the  Spanish  people?  (2.)  How  are  they  governed ?  (8.) 
What  is  the  Cortes?     (4.)  How  is  the  body  composed  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  the  senate  ?  (2.)  How  is  it  composed  ?  (.3.)  What  is  the 
house  of  deputies  ?     (4.)   What  is  the  proportion  of  deputies  ? 

m. —  (1.)  How  long  is  a  deputy's  term  of  oflice  ?  (2.)  What  is  requisite  f<?i 
the  passage  of  laws?     (3.)   What  is  said  of  niouey  measures? 

IV. — (1  )  What  may  be  done  by  the  monarch  ? 


The   Poituguese   Monarchy.  28q 

months  afterward.  (2.)  The  senate  is  not  limited  in  number,  but 
comprises  all  grandees,  who  are  members  by  right  of  birth,  and  all 
persons  named  by  the  king. 

V. —  (1.)  The  sovereign  of  Spain  is  only  responsible  through  the 
council.  (2.)  The  royal  council  is  composed  of  six  secretaries,  pre- 
siding over  the  several  departments  of  state — of  war,  of  finance,  of 
justice,  of  marine,  and  of  subordinate  governments. 

VI. —  (1.)  The  Spanish  judiciary  consists  of  a  supreme  court  and 
fifteen  royal  courts,  in  as  many  territorial  departments.  (2.)  The 
supreme  court  has  a  president  and  fifteen  judges.  (3.)  These  are 
divided  into  three  committees,  or  halls  of  justice,  called  first  and 
second  courts,  and  court  of  the  ladies.  (4.)  The  last  has  jurisdic- 
tion in  colonial  matters.  (5.)  Below  these  are  the  fifteen  courts, 
called  Audiendas.  (6.)  The  state  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  with 
a  hierarchy  of  tea  archbishops  and  fifty-niae  bishops.. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

THE   PORTUGUERff  MONARCHY. 

L— »1.)  The  Portuguese  are  descended  from  tribes  of  Vandals 
and  (ioths,  who  successively  invaded  Europe,  and  settled  at  its  south- 
western extremity.  (2.)  During  tlie  middle  ages,  the  people  weri 
ru'.'.'d  by  kings  more  or  less  despotic. 

II. — (1.)  Portugal  is  a  hereditary  monarchy,  governed  accord- 

(2.)  What  does  the  senate  comprise? 

v.— (1.)  What  is  the  sovereign's  responsibility?  (2.)  How  is  the  roT&l 
council  composed  ? 

VI. — (1.)  Of  what  does  the  Spanish  judiciary  consist?  (2.)  How  is  the 
supreme  court  composed ?  (3.)  How  are  the  judges  divided?  (4.)  What  is 
said  of  the  couit  of  the  Indies?  yb.)  What  are  below  the  halls  of  justice? 
(6.)  What  hierarchal  organization  is  there  in  Spain? 

I, — (1.)  From  what  tribes  are  the  Portuguese  descended?  (2.)  How  were 
the  people  ruled  during  the  middle  ages? 

XL — ,1.)   ^Vhat  is  the  government  of  Portugal? 

13 


2go  History  of  Governments. 

ing  to  a  written  constitution.  (2.)  There  is  a  legislature,  composed 
of  an  upper  and  lower  house,  the  members  being  elected.  (3.)  They 
have  regular  sessions,  and  constitute  the  supreme  legislative  power 
of  the  kingdom. 

III. — (1.)  The  Portuguese  monarch  is  commander  of  the  military 
forces,  appoints  governors,  and  signs  all  laws.  (2.)  He  has  no  veto 
power  to  prevent  the  passage  of  legislative  measures.  (3.)  The 
state  is  divided  politically  into  eight  provinces,  comprising  seven- 
teen districts. 

IV. — (1.)  In  each  district  there  is  a  judicial  tribunal,  acting  as 
the  highest  court.  (2.)  Under  these  tribunals  a  great  number  of 
magistrates  are  appointed,  as  primary  courts.  (3.)  A  superior 
court,  with  extensive  jurisdiction,  and  a  supreme  national  court, 
constitute  the  chief  judiciary. 

V. — (1.)  Education  in  Portugal  is  in  a  low  condition,  and  mainly 
controlled  by  the  clergy.  (2.^  The  established  religion  is  Roman 
Catholic,  with  a  hierarchal  organization.  (3.)  A  patriarch,  two 
archbishops,  and  fourteen  bishops,  exercise  jurisdiction  ovc  eccle- 
siastical concerns. 

(2.)  What  is  the  legislature?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  these  houses? 

TTT. — (1.)  What  authority  ha«  the  monarch  ?  (2.)  How  is  his  amno»^t^ 
limited?     (3.)  What  are  political  divisions  of  the  state  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  judiciary  ?  (2.)  What  of  magistrates?  (S.. 
What  constitute  the  chief  judiciary  ? 

v.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  education  in  Portugal?  (2.)  What  of  reljgia*' 
(S.)  Hovr  is  the  hierarchy  orgaaixed  ? 


CHAPTER   Xlll. 

THE      BRAZILIAN      EMPIRE. 

I. (1.)  The  Brazilian  empire  is  the  only  independent  monarchy 

on  the  American  continent.  (2.)  The  state  was  founded  by  Portu- 
guese colonists,  and  was  governed  at  first  as  a  province  of  Portugal. 
(3.)  It  was  erected  into  a  vice-kingdom,  attached  to  the  Portuguese 
crown,  and  afterward  became  au  independent  state 

II__(1.)  The  form  of  government  in  Brazil  is  that  of  a  heredi- 
tary monarchy.  (2.)  There  is  a  written  constitution  and  a  repre- 
sentative parliament  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties. (3.)  Senators  are  appointed  by  the  emperor,  and  deputies 
elected  by  the  people. 

III. — (1.)  There  are  nineteen  provinces  in  the  empire,  each  of 
which  has  a  legislative  assembly,  chosen  by  the  people,  once  in  two 
years.  (2.)  These  bodies  possess  the  power  of  legislating  for  the 
people  of  their  respective  provinces.  (3.)  They  have  the  privilege 
of  establishing  local  measures,  and  appoiniiiig  officers  of  a  province 
nominated  by  the  king.  (4.)  The  national  legislature  has  authority 
over  all  the  others  for  purposes  of  peace  and  war. 

IV". — (1.)  Members  of  the  Brazilian  national  senate  hold  office 
for  life.  (2.)  Members  of  the  national  chamber  of  deputies  are 
chosen  to  serve  four  years.  (3.)  The  privilege  of  voting  is  allowed 
to  all  free  citizens,  with  certain   restrictions  in  different  provinces. 


L— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Brazilian  empire?  (2.)  How  was  the  state 
founded?     (3.)  What  changes  lias  it  undergone  ? 

n. —  (1.)  What  is  the  Brazilian  form  of  government?  (2.)  How  is  the  royal 
authority  limited  ?     (3.)  How  is  the  legislature  formed  ? 

m. — (1.)  How  is  the  empire  politically  divided?  (2.)  What  authority  have 
the  provincial  legislature  ?  (3.)  What  privileges  do  they  possess  ?  (4.)  What 
jurisdiction  has  the  national  legislature? 

IV. — (1.)   How  long  do   senators  hold  office  ?     (2.)   How  long  is  a  deputy's 

term?     (3.)  What  persons  have  the  privilege  of  voting? 

291 


292  History  of  Governments. 

(4.)  The  population  is  divided  iato  Europeans,  white  Braziliaus, 
Indians,  negroes,  and  mixed  races.  (5.)  Slavery  of  colored  persons 
is  recognized  by  law,  but  there  are  no  distinctions  between  free 
citizens  on  accoant  of  color. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE   GOVERNMENT   OF  THE   FRENCH. 

I. — (1.)  After  the  division  of  Charlemagne's  Frankish  empire, 
the  territory  that  remained  under  his  successors  was  known  as 
France.  (2.)  The  government  remained  an  absolute  monarchy, 
modified  only  by  parliaments  called  by  the  king  on  important 
occasions. 

II. — (1.)  During  the  middle  ages,  the  French  government,  like 
all  other  administration  of  power  in  Europe,  was  influenced  by  the 
feudal  system.  (2.)  The  king's  authority  was  often  contested  by 
combinations  of  his  great  vassals. 

III. — (1.)  When  the  commons,  or  body  of  the  people,  became 
of  importance,  the  king  relied  upon  them  to  sustain  his  government. 
(2.)  The  people  were  heavily  taxed  by  princes  and  nobility,  as  well 
as  by  the  government. 

IV. —  (1.)  The  political  organization  of  France  was  violently 
changed  about  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  (2.)  The 
people  rose  in  revolution,  and  framed  a  democratic  constitution. 

(4.)  How  is  the  population  divided?     (5.)  What  is  said  of  colored  persons? 

L — (1.)  What  is  said  of  France?  (2.)  What  of  its  gOTernment  after  Charle 
magne  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  was  French  government  during  the  middle  ages?  (2)  How 
was  the  king's  authority  contested? 

TTT. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  commons?  (2.)  What  grieyances  did  tht; 
people  suffer  ? 

rV. — (1.)  When  was  French  government  violently  changed?  (2.)  Wha^ 
did  the  people  do? 


The  Government  of  the  French.  293 

(3.)  This  form  of   government  was    succeeded  by  the   military 
empire  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

v.— (1.)  After  tlie  fall  of  Bonaparte,  a  member  of  the  former  * 
royal  family  resumed  the  throne.  (2.)  An  aristocratic  assem- 
bly, elected,  by  property  holders,  and  a  senate  of  nobility,  ap- 
pointed by  the  king,  formed  the  legislative  power.  (3.)  This 
government  was  changed  by  another  revolution,  and  a  new 
king  was  elected  by  the  people. 

VI. — (1.)  In  the  year  1848,  a  tbird  revolution  toot  place 
in  France,  and  the  government  was  changed  to  a  republican 
form.  (2.)  A  chief  magistrate,  named  President,  was  chosen 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  (3.)  A  legislative  body,  called  the 
National  Assembly,  was  elected  by  votes  of  all  the  people  of 
France. 

VII.— (2.)  Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  elected  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic,  and,  shortly  afterward,  made  him- 
self dictator  by  military  force.  (2.)  He  caused  the  republic  to 
be  changed  to  a  monarchy,  and  himself  to  be  made  hereditary 
emperor. 

VIII.— (1.)  The  political  constitution  of  France  was  then 
based  on  the  military  power  and  influence  of  Louis  Napoleon. 
(2.)  The  emperor  appointed  all  ministers,  members  of  the  coun- 
cil of  state,  and  members  of  the  senate.  (3.)  Legislative  power 
subsisted  in  the  emperor,  the  senate,  and  a  national  assembly 
chosen  by  the  people. 

IX. — (1.)  Senators  were  named  by  the  emperor,  to  serve 
during  life.  (2.)  He  likewise  had  the  power  to  grant  to  lhem 
SG,000  a  year,  as  compensation.  (3.)  Their  number  was  tixcd 
by  the  constitution  at  one  hundred  and  fifty. 

(3.)  What  succeeded  the  first  democracy  ? 

Y_(>.)  What  took  place  after  Bonaparte  ?  (2.)  What  then  formed  the  legisla- 
ture ?    (3.)  What  occurred  to  this  goveriimeut  ? 

VI.— (1.)  What  took  placoln  the  year  1818  ?  ('2.)  What  ruler  was  clioson  ?  (3.1 
How  was  the  legislature  appointed  ? 

VII.— (1.)  What  13  said  of  Louis  Napoleon  ?    ('2.)  What  course  did  he  pursue  ? 

VIII.— On  what  was  the  government  tht^n  based  ?  (2.)  What  did  the  emperor 
aiipolut?    (3)  Where  was  legislative  I'ower  placed  ? 

IX— (1)  What  Is  said  of  senators  ?  (-2.)  How  wera  thoy  InllueucoJ  bj  the  em- 
peror ?    (3.)  State  the  number  of  senators. 


294  History  of  Governments. 

Xi — (1.)  The  national  legislature  comprised  a  body  of  two 
liundred  and  sixty-one  members.  (2.)  Tlie  members  of  this 
body  represented  municipalities  and  rural  districts  tbrougliout 
France.  (3.)  One  representative  was  given  to  thirty-five  thou- 
sand voters.  (4.)  These  representatives,  entitled  deputies, 
were  each  chosen  to  serve  six  years. 

XI. — (1.)  The  power  to  frame  all  laws  and  propose  pub- 
lic measures  was  reposed  in  the  senate.  (2.)  The  lower  or  rep- 
resentative branch  of  the  legislature,  could  only  do  business 
previously  sanctioned  by  the  senate 

XII. — (1.)  The  discussions  of  the  senate  were  held  with 
closed  doors.  (2.)  The  meetings  of  the  other  legislative  branch 
were  held  in  secret,  whenever  any  five  members  desired  them  to 
be  so. 

XIII.— (1.)  The  emperor  kept   officers   to   supervise  all 

newspapers  and  other  publications.  (2.)  Nothing  was  allowed 
to  be  printed  unless  sanctioned  by  the  imperial  government. 
(3.)  A  rigid  police  system  extended  over  all  parts  of  France. 
(4.)  A  large  standing  army  was  enlisted  at  the  expense  of  the 
tax  payers,  to  support  imperial  government. 

XIV. — (1.)  French  territory  is  comprised  in  {ycvernmental 
departments.  (2.)  Departments  are  sub-divided  into  -arroudise- 
ments,  arrondisements  into  cantons,  and  cantons  into  com- 
munes. 

XV. — (1.)  A  department  embraces  one,  or  part  of  one,  of 
more  ancient  divisions  called  dukedoms  and  counties.    (2.)  An 

X.—(l.)  What  was  a  national  legislature  ?  (2.)  What  did  its  members  repre- 
sent? (3.)  State  the  proportion  of  representatives  to  voters  7  (i.)  V/hut  Is  said 
of  those  representatives  ? 

XI,— (1.)  What  authority  was  enjoyed  by  the  senate?  (2.)  How  was  tlio  represen- 
tative branch  restricted  ? 

XII.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  senatorial  discussions  ?  (2,)  Wliat  of  the  meetings 
of  representatives  ? 

XIII.— Was  freedom  of  th«  press  restricted  in  France  ?  What  about  matters  tr> 
be  printed  ?    (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  police  ?    (i  )  What  of  an  army  ? 

XIV.— (1.)  How  is  France  divided  ?    What  subdivisions  are  made  ? 

XV.— (1-)   Wliat  doas  a  department  embrace  ?     (2.)    What    Is  an   arroivllB* 


The  Government  of  the  French.  295 

arroridissement  is  a  district  comprising  several  towns  and  villages. 
(3.)  A  canton  is  a  township,  or  city,  with  its  neighborhoods.  (4.)  A 
commune  is  a  ward  or  parish,  containing  a  certain  nnmber  of  in- 
haljiiaiits,  more  or  less. 

XVI. (1.)  The  lowest  tribunals  in  France  are  the  courts  of 

communes.  (2.'',  Each  commune  has  a  justice  of  the  peace,  who 
acts  as  a  referee,  or  umpire,  between  disputants.  (3.)  If  a  cause  is 
not  settled  before  this  tribunal,  it  may  be  carried  to  the  arroudisse- 
raeut  court,  to  a  commercial  court,  or  to  a  court  of  referees. 

XVII. — (1.)  Over  these  inferior  tribunals  are  twenty-seven  im- 
]}fv\ii\  courts,  each  having  jurisdiction  over  several  departments. 
(2.)  These  courts  are  ranged  in  three  classes,  two  of  them  having 
live  chambers,  nine  having  four  chambers,  and  sixteen  having  three 
chambers  each.  (3.)  These  imperial  courts  are  held  in  a  chief 
rown  of  the  district  over  which  they  claim  jurisdiction. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  supreme  judicial  tribunal  of  France  is  called 
the  Court  of  Cassation,  or  repeal.  (2.)  The  sessions  of  this  court 
are  held  at  Paris,  the  imperial  capital.  (3.)  It  has  power  to  re- 
view and  annul  all  decisions  made  by  inferior  courts. 

XIX.— (1.)  Educational  matters  in  France  are  under  supervision 
of  government.  (2.)  The  emperor  appoints  a  Minister  of  Public 
Instruction,  who  has  charge  of  educational  and  religious  institutions. 
(3.)  Tlie  educational  institutions  are  ranged  under  three  heads, 
called  academies,  secondary  schools,  and  primary  schools. 

XX. — (I.)  The  University  of  Paris  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
academies.      (2.)  The  minister  of   public    instruction  is    its  chief 

nieiu?     (3.)   What  is  a  Clinton?     (4.)  What  is  a  commune? 

XVI.— (1.)  What  are  the  lowest  French  tribunals?  (2.)  What  does  each 
commune  have?  (3.)  What  may  be  done  with  causes  not  settled  in  commune 
courts  ? 

XVn.— (1.)  What  are  over  the  lower  tribunals?  {1.)  How  are  these  courts 
ranged?     (3.)  Where  are  the  imperial  courts  held  ? 

XVin.— (1.)  What  is  the  highest  judicial  tribunal?  (2.)  Where  is  it  lo- 
cated?    (3.)   What  power  has  the  Court  of  Cassation  ' 

XIX.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  education  in  France?  (2.)  What  chief  educa- 
tional officer  t.^  appointed  ?     (3.)   How  are  educational  institutions  ranged? 

XX. — (1.)    What  is  at  the  head  of  the  academies?     (2.)   How  is  it  directed? 


21)6  History  of  Governments. 

functionary,  assisted  by  a  council  of  thirty  persons.  (3.) 
Under  the  University  are  twenty-seven  piincipal  academies,  in 
as  many  educational  districts.  (4.)  Under  each  academy,  are 
the  secondary  and  primary  schools  of  the  district. 

XXI. — (1.)  After  the  second  empire  had  lasted  twenty 
years,  Louis  Napoleon  was  dethroned.  (2.)  Foreign  and  civil  war 
was  followed  by  another  republican  government.  ( 3.)  Trance 
is  now  ruled  by  a  president  elected  for  life,  a  senate,  and  an  as- 
sombiy  of  elected  delegates. 

XXII. — (1.)  The  French  people  have  sought,  by  several 
revolutions,  to  establish  a  popular  form  of  government.  (2.) 
They  have  encountered,  in  each  attempt,  the  evil  of  ambition,  in 
unscrupulous  leaders.  (3.)  The  danger  of  a  large  army,  con- 
trolled by  government,  has  been  made  manifest  through  all 
French  history. 

XXIII. — (1.)  The  French  people  are  still  maintaining 
large  armies  to  sustain  government.  (2.)  A  regular  military 
organization  is  supported  by  the  republic,  and  is  a  means  of 
subsisting  large  bodies  of  men  in  idleness,  and  accustoming  the 
officers  to  exercise  arbitrary  authority,  (3.)  When  paid  sol- 
diers are  made  dependent  upon  a  central  power,  they  stand  ready 
to  strengthen  it,  for  their  own  interest. 

XXIV. — (1.)  The  only  large  military  force  not  dangerous  in 
a  republic  is  that  of  a  militia  of  citizens.  (2.)  A  well-organized 
militia  is  as  powerful  to  defend  any  country  as  a  standing  army 


(3.)  What  are  under  the  University?    (4.)  What  are  under  the  academies? 

XXI.— (1.)  What  befell  Louia  Napoleon?  (2.)  What  followed?  (3.)  What  la  the 
government  of  France  at  present? 

XXII— (1)  What  have  the  French  people  sought?  (2.)  Whyhave  they  failed? 
(3.)  What  evil  has  been  shown  thereby? 

XXIII.— (1-)  How  have  the  French  people  been  kept  in  subjection?  (2.)  What  is 
tlio  legular  military  organization?    (3.)  What  is  the  effect  of  such  an  organization? 

XXIV.— (1  )    What    military    force    is    not    dangerous?       (2.)    What    is    the 


Constitutional  Kingdom  of  Belgium.         297 

would  be.  (3.)  A  militia  is  sustained  by  the  patriotism  of  each 
citizen,  whilst  a  standing  array  is  kept  together  only  by  wages  and 
discipline. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

CONSTrrUTIONAL    KINGDOM    OF    BELGIUM. 

I. — (1.)  The  Belgians  derive  their  origin  from  German  and 
French  ancestors.  (2.)  Their  country  has  formed,  at  different 
periods,  portions  of  France  and  of  Germany.  (3.)  The  state  of 
Belgium  is  now  a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  republican  legislative 
assemblies. 

II. — (1.)  The  office  of  king  is  hereditary  through  male  branches 
of  the  reigning  family.  (2.)  The  legislature  is  composed  of  a 
senate  and  house  of  representatives,  elected  by  registered  voters  of 
all  classes. 

III. — (1.)  Belgium  is  divided  into  nine  provinces,  each  with  a 
governor  and  council,  and  superior  court.  (2.)  The  provinces  are 
subdivided  into  arrondissements,  cantons,  and  communes,  as  in 
France.  (3.)  Each  arrondissement  has  an  inferior  court,  and  each 
canton  a  tribunal  of  police.  (4.)  There  are  high  courts  of  appeal 
in  the  cities  of  Brussels,  Ghent,  f^nd  Liege,  but  supreme  judicial 
power  is  vested  in  a  court  of  cassation  at  the  first-mentioned  capital 
city. 

IV. — (1.)  The  educational  institutions  of  Belgium  consist  of  four 

benefit  of  a  good  militia?    (3.)  What  important  diflerence  is  there  between  a 
militia  and  a  standing  army. 

I.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Belgians  ?  (2.)  What  of  their  country  ?  (3.) 
What  is  the  state  now  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  is  the  office  of  king?  (2.)  How  is  the  legislature  com- 
posed ? 

m. — (1.)  How  is  Belgium  politically  divided?  (2.)  How  are  the  provinces 
subdivided?  (3.)  What  has  each  arrondissement?  (4.)  What  other  judicial 
organization  is  mentioned  ? 

IV. — (1  )  What  is  said  of  education  in  Belgium  ? 

13* 


298  History  of  Governments. 

universities,  high  schools,  called  gymnasia,  in  most  of  the  cities,  and 
primary  schools  in  the  communes.  (2.)  Clergy  of  all  sects  are 
assisted  by  the  state  in  their  religious  teachings.  (3.)  The  govern- 
ment of  Belgium  is  tolerant,  and  the  citizens  are  protected  in  their 
rights.  (4.)  The  state  is  prosperous,  and  its  individuals  generally 
contented. 


CHAPTER  XVL 

KINGDOM    OF    THE    NETHERLANDS. 

I. — (1.)  The  Dutch,  or  Holland  nation,  was  originally  comprised 
in  a  barbarous  people  who  lived  on  the  borders  of  ancient  Gaul. 
(2.)  They  were  known  as  Belgians,  and  their  chief  tribes  were  called 
Batavians.  (3.)  They  afterward  became  sul)jects  of  Charlemagne^ 
and  his  successors,  under  governors  called  dukes  and  counts. 

II._(1.)  The  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  ruler  of  Holland,  Belgium, 
and  adjoining  districts  known  as  the  Low  Countries.  (2.)  These  fell 
under  the  dominion  of  Spain,  and  afterwards  became  an  indepen- 
dent republic  under  a  chief  magistrate  called  the  stadtholder,  and 
an  aristocratic  council,  or  States-General.  (3.)  Holland  is  now 
known  as  Netherlands,  and  forms  a  constitutional  state,  governed 
by  a  hereditary  king. 

III. (1.)  The  legislature  of  the  Netherlands  consists  of*  the 

king  and  two  chambers,  called  States-General.  (2.)  The  upper 
chamber   numbers    twenty-three    and    the    lower    fifty-five    mem- 

(2.)  What  of  the  clergy?  (3.)  What  of  the  government  and  citizens?  (4.'> 
What  of  the  State  ? 

I._(l.)  What  were  the  original  Dutch  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  their  names? 
(3.)  What  did  they  subsequently  become  ? 

n— (1.)  What  was  the  Duke  of  Burgundy?  (2.)  What  afterward  took 
place?     (3.)  What  is  Holland  now  ? 

in.— (1.)  Of  what  does  tlie  Netherlands  legislature  consist?     (2.)  What  d« 


Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  299 

bers.  (3.)  This  body  assembles  at  the  royal  capital,  which  is 
called  the  Hague. 

IV. (1.)  Members  of  the  upper  chamber  of  the  States-General 

hold  office  for  life,  under  appointment  of  the  king.  (2.)  Members 
of  the  lower  chamber  are  elected  by  the  states,  or  united  provinces. 
(3.)  These  united  provinces  are  ten  in  number. 

V. (1.)  The   kingdom  of   the  Netherlands  also  comprises  the 

German  provinces  of  Limburg  and  Luxemburg.  (2.)  Tliis  allows  it  a 
voice  in  the  German  Confederation.  (3.)  It  also  possesses  many 
colonies  in  Asia,  Africa  and  America,  governed  by  officers  appointed 
by  the  States-General. 

VI. (1.)  Education  is  universally  diffused  throughout  the  united 

provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  (2.)  The  people  are  industrious, 
frugal,  and  enterprising.  (3.)  Their  rights  are  protected,  and  they 
are  generally  prosperous  and  contented. 


the  chambers  number  respectively?  (3.)  Where  do  the  States-General 
assemble  ? 

IV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  upper  chamber?  (2.J  What  of  the  lowei 
chamber?     (3.)  How  many  provinces  are  there ? 

v.— (1.)  What  German  provinces  does  the  kingdom  comprise  ?  (2.)  To 
what  does  this  entitle  it?    (3.)  What  other  dependencies  has  the  kingdom ? 

VI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  education  in  Holland?  (2.)  What  of  the  people? 
(8.)  What  is  their  condition  f 


CONFEDERATED 

STATES   OF  EUROPE, 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  GERMAN  CONFEDERATION. 


I. — (1.)  The  Holy  Roman  Empire  of  Germany  continued, 
during  many  centuries,  to  be  governed  by  monarchs  elected  by 
the  chiefs  of  all  G-erman  states.  (2.)  About  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  present  empire  of  Austria  took  its  place. 
(3,)  The  territory  now  known  as  Germany  was  divided  into 
thirty-eight  sovereignties,  large  and  small.  Austria  and 
Prussia  were  the  leading  German  powers. 

II. — (2.)  Some  of  the  German  communities  were  constitu- 
tional monarchies,  and  some  absolute,  others  were  more  popular 
in  form.  (2.)  The  heads  or  representatives  of  the  various 
states  met,  at  stated  periods,  in  a  national  council  called  the 
German  Diet.  (3.)  This  combination,  for  political  purposes, 
was  called  the  German  Confederation.  (4.)  Its  object  was  as- 
sumed to  be  for  a  mutual  defense  of  all  the  states,  and  the 
maintenance  of  each  in  peace  and  independence, 

I.— (1.)  What  Is  said  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  ?  (2.)  What  took  Its  place  ?  (3.) 
How  was  German  territory  then  divided?  (4.)  What  was  the  leading  German  pow- 
er ? 

II.--(1.)  What  is  said  ot  German  monarchies  ?  (2)  What  of  the  representatives  of 
the  different  states  ?  (6.)  What  was  the  combination  called?  (4.)  What  were  the  as- 
sumed objects  or  this  oonlederatlou  ? 


The  German  Confederation.  301 

III. (i.)  The  Diet,  or  assembly  of  representatives  from  all  the 

states,  meets,  from  time  to  time,  at  a  city  called  Frankfort-on-the- 
Maine.  (2.)  The  representative  of  Austria  presides  over  the 
sessions,  because  Austria  is  acknowledged  to  be  the  most  powerful 
German  government. 

IV.— (1)  The  German  Diet  acts  as  a  general  assembly,  each 
state  having  a  certain  number  of  votes  on  every  question.  (2.)  The 
larger  powers  have  more  votes  or  representatives  tlian  the  smaller, 
and  there  are  sixty-nine  votes  in  all.  (3.)  Most  of  the  business  of 
the  Didi||s  transacted  by  a  select  committee,  in  which  only  seven- 
teen votes  are  cast.  (4.)  In  this  committee  the  large  states  have 
each  one  vote,  and  the  smaller  states  have  only  one  vote  allowed  to 
several  of  them  combined.  (5.)  Eleven  large  states  cast  one  vote 
each,  and  twenty-seven  small  ones  divide  the  remaining  six  votes 
between  their  delegations. 

V. — (1.)  The  committee  examine  all  matters  before  they  are 
submitted  to  the  General  Assembly,  or  Diet.  (2.)  The  committee 
propose  such  measures  as  they  desire  shall  be  acted  upon,  and  a 
vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  General  As.sembly  decides  for  or.  against 
them.  (3.)  Questions  involving  war,  or  making  peace,  are  acted 
upon  by  the  Diet.  (4.)  This  prevents  one  German  power  from 
levying  war  without  consultation  of  otiiers.  (5.)  When  money  and 
soldiers  are  to  be  raised,  the  Diet  fixes  the  proportion  that  each 
state  must  contribute. 

VI. — (1.)  In  the  German  Diet,  the  representatives  of  Austria, 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  and  Wurtemburg,  have  each 
four   votes.     (2.)    These   six   kingdoms   together   cast  twenty-four 


ni.— (1.)  Where  does  the  Diet  meet  ?     (2.)  What  state  presides  ? 

IV. — (1.)  How  docs  the  Diet  act?  (2.)  How  arc  the  votes  of  states  divided? 
(3.)  What  is  said  of  a  select  committee?  (4.)  How  are  votes  cast  in  this  com- 
mittee ?     (5.)  What  proportion  have  the  large  states  ? 

V. — (1.)  What  is  the  business  of  the  select  committee?  (2)  How  are 
measures  acted  upon?  (3.)  What  questions  are  acted  upon  by  the  Diet? 
(4.)  What  does  this  prevent?  (5.)  What  other  matters  does  the  Diet 
arrange  ? 

VI. — ^1.)  What  German  powers  have  four  votes  each  in  the  Diet  ?    (2.)  How 


002  History  of  Governments. 

votes.  (3.)  The  representatives  of  Baden,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  Holstein  and  Lauenburg,  and  Luxemburg  and  Limburg, 
each  cast  three  votes,  making  fifteen  votes.  (4.)  These  fifteen, 
with  the  twenty-four  preceding,  amount  to  thirty-nine,  or  more  than 
half  the  number  of  votes  in  the  whole  assembly. 

VII. — (1.)  Of  the  remaining  votes,  Brunswick,  Mechlenburg- 
Schwerin,  and  Nassau,  have  two  each.  (2.)  The  other  small  states, 
twenty-four  in  number,  have  each  a  single  vote.  (3.)  Four  of  them 
are  free  cities,  called  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  Frankfort,  and  Bremen. 

VIII. —  (1.)  In  meetings  of  the  minor  Diet,  or  Select  Committee, 
the  first  eleven  states  have  each  one  vote.  (2.)  The  twelfth  vote 
is  allowed  to  four  small  states,  the  thirteenth  to  two,  the  fourteenth 
to  two  also,  the  fifteenth  to  seven,  the  sixteenth  to  eight,  and  the 
seventeenth  to  the  four  free  cities. 


CHAPTER   II.  „    . 

THE    SWISS    CONFEDERATION, 

I. — (1.)  The  Alpine  country,  now  known  as  Switzerland,  was 
anciently  called  Helvetia.  (2.)  It  was  inhabited  successively  by 
Goths,  Lombards,  Burgundians,  Alemanni,  and  other  barbarous 
tribes.  (3.)  It  became  a  province  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
attached  to  the  dominions  of  Oest-reich,  or  Austria.  (4.)  It  was 
then  divided  into  a  number  of  cantons,  each  containing  many  vil- 
lages and  small  towns,  generally  ruled  by  bishops,  abbots,  or  nobles. 


many  votes  do  these  kingdoms  cast  ?  (3.)  What  states  have  three  votes  each  ? 
(4.)  What  proportional  votes  are  possessed  by  the  eleven  states  mentioned  ? 

Vn.— (1.)  What  states  have  two  votes  each  in  the  Diet?  (2.)  What  votes 
have  the  remaining  twenty-four  states  ?  (3.)  What  are  the  names  of  the  free 
cities  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  votes  in  the  Select  Committee?  (2.)  What  is 
the  proportion  allowed  to  other  states  ? 

I. — (^1.)  What  was  Switzerland  anciently  called?  (2.)  By  whom  was  it 
inhabited?     (3.)  What  did  it  become?     (4  )  How  was  it  divided? 


The  Swiss  Confederation.  303 

who  lived  in  neighboriug  convents  and  castles.  (5.)  Each  commu- 
nity possessed  certain  privileges  guaranteed  by  the  emperor  as  a 
reward  for  their  payment  of  taxes. 

II. — (1.)  The  counts  of  Hapsburg,  sovereigns  of  Austria,  claimed 
exclusive  jurisdiction  over  Helvetic  territory.  (2.)  They  placed 
oppressive  governors  over  various  districts,  until  tlie  people  revolted 
and  formed  a  confederation  of  three  districts,  called  the  cantons  of 
Schwitz,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden.  (3.)  The  name  of  the  first  canton 
became  afterward  a  designation  for  all  the  country  of  Helvetia. 

III. — (1.)  The  three  united  cantons  were  afterward  joined  by 
five  more,  called  Lucerne,  Zurich,  Glaris,  Zug,  and  Berne.  (2.) 
They  formed  the  Swiss  Confederation,  which  guaranteed  to  each 
canton  an  independent  local  administration.  (3.)  The  form  of 
government  in  some  cantons  was  aristocratic,  in  others  democratic. 
(4.)  At  a  later  period,  the  Swiss  Confederation  composed  thirteen 
cantons. 

IV. — (1.)  The  terms  of  confederation  between  Helvetic  cantons 
comprised  an  agreement  to  preserve  peace  and  unanimity  among 
themselves,  and  a  guaranty  of  perfect  security  to  every  individual. 
(2.)  They  provided  for  protection  of  all  traders,  and  for  personal 
service  of  every  citizen  in  seasons  of  common  danger.  (3)  Strict 
regulations  were  made  concerning  the  conduct  of  Switzsrs  in 
battle.  (4.)  No  one  was  allowed  to  leave  the  field,  or  take  any 
spoil,  without  permission  of  his  commander.  (5.)  All  jjlunder  was 
placed  in  the  commander's  hands,  to  be  distributed  to  cantons 
according  to  the  number  of  men  furnished  by  each.  (6.)  Switzers 
were  forbidden  to  burn  or  rob  churches,  or  molest  women,  except 
uuder  extraordinary  circumstances. 

(5.)  What  did  each  community  possess? 

n. — (1.)  Who  claimed  jurisdiction  over  the  country?     (2.)  What  resulted 
(3.)  What  canton  gave  name  to  the  country? 

m. — (1.)  How  was  the  first  combination  strengthened?  (2.)  Wliat  did  tie 
union  form  ?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  different  governments?  (4.)  How  many 
cantons  were  afterward  combined  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  did  the  ternls  of  confederation  comprise?  (2.)  For  what 
did  they  provide?  (3.)  What  regulations  were  made?  (4.)  What  was  not 
allowed?    (5.)  What  was  done  with  plunder?    (6.)  What  was  forbidden  ? 


304  History  of  Governments. 

V.--  (1.)  The  Swiss  cantons  are  now  twenty-two  in  number,  con- 
stituted as  a  federal  republic.  (2.)  The  national  assembly  consists 
of  two  bodies,  one  called  a  National  Council,  and  the  other  a  Senate, 
or  Council  of  States.  (3.)  The  national  council  is  composed  of  per- 
sons named  by  the  people  of  cantons  as  their  representatives,  one 
representative  being  allowed  to  each  ten  thousand  inhabitants  of  a 
canton.  (4.)  These  representatives  are  chosen  for  a  term  of  three 
years  each.  (5.)  The  senate  consists  of  forty-four  members,  two 
f()r  each  canton. 

VI.^(1.)  The  administration  of  national  affairs  is  intrusted  to  a 
body  called  the  Federal  Council,  composed  of  seven  members.  (2.) 
These  are  chosen  by  the  national  council  from  qualified  Swiss  citi- 
zens, and  their  term  of  ofiBce  is  three  years.  (3.)  The  senate  and 
5iational  council  possess  the  riglit  to  make  war  or  peace,  and  trans- 
act business  with  foreign  powers. 

VII, — (1.)  The  Swiss  judiciary  consists  of  a  court  called  the 
Federal  Tribunal,  of  eleven  members  and  eleven  substitutes.  (2.) 
it  is  named  by  the  federal  assembly  for  a  term  of  three  years,  and 
decides  questions  between  different  cantons,  cantons  and  the  confede- 
ration, or  cantons  and  individuals.  (3.)  It  is  divided  into  sections, 
constituting  a  chamber  of  accusation,  a  jury,  and  a  court  of  errors, 
or  appeals, 

VIII. — (1.)  Education  is  universal  throughout  Switzerland. 
(2.)  A  system  of  primary  schools  is  sustained,  and  three  important 
colleges  are  located  at  Basle,  Berne,  and  Zurich.  (3  )  The  Swiss 
population  is  organized  for  common  defence,  as  a  militia,  and  each 
canton  is  bonijd  to  contribute  a  certain  number  of  soldiers  in  time 
of  danger. 

V. —  (1.)  How  many  cantons  constitute  the  Swiss  republic?  (2.)  Of  what 
does  the  national  assembly  consist  ?  (3.)  How  is  the  national  council  com- 
posed? (4.)  How  long  do  representatives  hold  office?  (5.)  Of  what  does 
the  Swiss  senate  consist  ? 

VI.— (1  )  What  is  the  administration?  (2.)  Who  compose  this  council"; 
(8.)  What  power  is  held  by  senate  and  national  council  ? 

Vn.— (1.)  What  is  the  Swiss  judiciary  ?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  this  court  ? 
(3.)  How  is  it  divided  ? 

Vm. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  education?  (2.)  What  institutions  Are 
there  ?     (3.)  How  is  the  Swiss  population  organized  ' 


CHAPTER   III. 

ITALIAN       REPUBLICS. 

I. — (1.)  After  the  downfall  of  Roman  power  in  western  Europe, 
the  territories  of  Italy  were  governed  as  a  kingdom,  by  a  barbarian 
nation  called  Lombards.  (2.)  The  Lombards  were  subjugated  by 
Charlemagne,  and  after  his  death  the  country  was  divided  into  seve- 
ral districts,  each  governed  by  an  independent  military  chief. 

II. — (1.)  During  the  middle  ages,  Italy  comprised  several  small 
states,  some  republican,  despotic,  and  hierarchic  in  forms  of  gov- 
ernment. (3.)  Most  of  these  states  had  been  important  cities  of 
the  Roman  commonwealth  and  empire. 

III. — (L)  Under  Roman  dominion,  the  Italian  cities  resembled 
the  capital,  Rome,  in  many  particulars.  _  (2.)  Their  population  was 
divided  into  classes  of  nobles,  artisans,  merchants,  freedmen,  and 
slaves.  (3.)  Their  political  organization  was  generally  of  a  repub- 
lican form,  composed  of  a  town  senate,  choson  by  the  people,  and 
two  annual  n^agistrates,  called  consuls.  (4.)  They  had  ediles, 
qusestors,  and  other  officers,  in  imitation  of  the  capital  city. 

IV. — (1.)  The  superior  class  in  Italian  cities  consisted  of  persons 
who  owned  neighboring  lands,  cultivated  as  farms  and  vineyards. 
(2.)  The  lands  were  worked  by  slaves  bought  from  barbarians,  or 
by  tenants  called  colons,  or  peasants,  who  received  a  small  share  of 
the  harvest  as  wages.     (3.)  The  actual  cultivators  of  land  had  no 

I. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Italian  territories?  (2.)  What  afterward  took 
place  ? 

n. — (1.)  What  did  Italy  comprise  during  the  middle  ages?  (2.)  What  ia 
said  of  these? 

m. — (1.)  What  did  Italian  cities  resemble?  (2.)  How  was  their  population 
divided?  (3.)  What  was  their  political  organization  ?  (4.)  What  officers  did 
they  have  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  constituted  a  superior  class  ?     (2.)  Who  were  land  culti- 

vators?    (3.)  What  is  said  of  these? 

305 


oob  History  o^  Governments. 

Dwuersliip,  and  no  interest  in  it,  except  to  earn  a  pittance  by  labors, 
for  tiie  proprietor. 

V. — (1.)  Sometimes  the  proprietors  of  laud  resided  at  Rome,  and 
their  large  estates  were  intrusted  to  overseers,  who  lived  in  the 
Italian  cities.  (2.)  The  overseers  only  thought  of  raising  as  much 
revenue  as  possible  from  their  employers'  lands,  at  the  least  expense 
for  labor,  (3.)  Under  these  agents,  agricultural  tenants  were  as 
mtich  oppressed  as  were  the  slaves. 

VI. — (1.)  After  the  western  empire  of  Eome  fell  before  the 
Goths,  a  few  Italian  cities  remained  governed  by  lieutenants  of  the 
eastern  emperor  at  Constantinople.  (2.)  The  title  of  these  lieuten- 
ants was  Exarch.,  and  they  collected  a  tribute  from  the  cities  under 
them.  (3.)  Other  Italian  cities  of  Greek  origin,  such  as  Naples, 
Gaeta,  and  Amalfi,  survived  the  fall  of  Rome,  as  independent  muni- 
cipalities. 

VII. — (1.)  When  Lombard  barbarians  took  possession  of  Italy, 
they  divided  the  territory  among  their  chiefs,  (2,)  Under  their 
jurisdiccion  the  country  was  separated  into  thirty  dukedoms  or  mar- 
quisates.  (3.)  The  Lombards  were  conquered  in  their  turn  by  the 
Franks,  under  Charlemagne. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  city  of  Rome  was,  for  many  centuries  before 
Charlemagne,  a  dukedom,  governed  by  a  lieutenant  of  the  eastern 
emperor  at  Constantinople.  (2.)  During  three  centuries,  the  bishop 
of  Rome,  called  Pope,  was  elected  by  the  clergy,  the  senate,  and 
the  people  of  the  diocese  or  district.  (3.)  When  Charlemagne 
subdued  the  Lombards,  he  was  crowned  at  Rome  as  restorer  of 
the  western  Roman  empire.  (4.)  The  eastern  emperors  then  ceased 
to  exercise  any  authority  in  Rome. 


V. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  overseers?  (2.)  What  motives  influenced  over- 
seers?    (3.)  What  was  the  consequence? 

VI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  few  cities?  (2.)  What  of  the  lieutenants? 
(3.)  What  was  the  condition  of  other  cities? 

Vn. — (I.)  What  did  the  Lombards  do  ?  (2.)  How  was  the  country  sepa- 
rated?    (3.)  What  became  of  tlie  Lcnbards  ? 

VTTT- — (1.)  W^hai  is  said  of  Rome  ?  (2.)  How  was  its  bishop  elected? 
(3.)  WLat  is  said  of  Charlemagne?     (4.)  What  of  the  eastern  emperors? 


Italian  Republics.  307 

IX. — (1.)  After  Charlemagne's  death,  his  Italian  provinces 
passed  from  Frai  kish  to  German  control.  (2.)  Italy  then  became 
part  of  the  Holy  Romnii  Empire,  and  iis  cities  paid  an  annual  tri- 
bute to  the  German  monarchs.  (3.)  Italian  districts  and  states  re- 
mained separate  and  independent  of  each  other.  (4.)  Most  of  the 
cities  were  rebuilt  and  surrounded  by  walls.  (5.)  Eaeli  had  its 
own  form  of  municipal  government.  (6.)  Some  cities  or  districts 
continued  to  acknowledge  dukes,  marquises,  or  counts,  as  under  the 
Lombards.  (7.)  Others  elected  senates  and  magistrates,  after  the 
ancient  democratic  form.  (8.)  Others  were  under  jurisdiction  of 
abbots  or  bishops. 

X.— (1.)  The  German  emperor  visited  Italy  once  in  five  or  sever 
years,  at  the  head  of  his  army.  (2.)  He  encamped  on  a  great  plain 
called  Roncaglia,  near  the  city  of  Placentia.  (3.)  Here  he  sum- 
moned before  him  the  dukes,  marquises,  counts,  and  magistrates, 
who  represented  various  Italian  states  and  cities.  (4.)  They  as- 
sembled in  his  camp,  the  emperor  presiding  over  their  deliberations. 
(5.)  They  delivered  to  him  the  tribute  or  taxes  due  from  different 
districts,  and  he  agreed  to  such  laws  as  he  thought  proper  for  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  country.  (6  )  After  remaining  some  months,  the 
emperor  marched  his  army  back  to  Germany.  (7.)  The  nobles  dis- 
persed to  their  castles,  the  magistrates  and  bishops  to  tiieir  cities, 
and  the  country  remained  as  usual,  till  another  imperial  visit. 

XI. — (1.)  Ciiarlemagne  and  his  successors  granted  to  citizens  of 
towns  the  right  of  building  fortifications,  and  of  assembling  in  town 
meeting  at  the  sound  of  a  great  bell.  (2.)  Each  city  raised  a  for  9 
of   militia,   commanded   by  chosen    magistrates   or    leaders.     (3\|. 

IX (1.)  What  occurred  after  Cliarlcmagiie's  death?     (2.)  What  did  Italy 

become?  (3.)  What  is  i.s  said  of  different  states?  (4.)  What  of  the  cities? 
(6.)  What  did  each  have?  (6)  What  did  some  continue  to  do?  (7.)  What 
government  did  others  adopt  ?     (8.)  What  localauthority  did  others  recognize  ? 

X. — (1  )  What  is  said  of  the  German  emperor?  (•>.)  Where  did  he 
encamp?  (3.)  What  did  he  summon  to  his  presence?  (4.)  What  did  ihese 
representatives  do  ?  (5.)  What  was  then  doner  (6.)  What  occurred  after- 
ward?    (7.)   What  did  tlie  Italian  authorities  then  do  ? 

XI, — (1.)  What  grants  were  made  by  Charlemagne  and  his  successors? 
•i.)  What  did  each  city   raise?     (3.)   What   partisan   divisions    took    place? 


3o8  History  of  Governments. 

When  the  popes  of  Rome  assumed  authority  over  Italy,  and  the 
German  emperors  opposed  their  claims,  the  Itahau  cities  tooli  sides 
upon  the  question.  (4.)  Some  declared  in  favor  of  the  pope  and 
some  of  the  emperor,  and  in  this  quarrel  waged  war  against  each 
other  as  independent  states. 

XII. — (1.)  The  meeting  of  citizens  at  the  sound  of  a  bell  was 
called  a  parliament.  (2.)  Citizens  assembled  in  the  market-place, 
or  great  square  of  a  city,  and  elected  two  magistrates  every  year. 
(3.)  One  was  intrusted  witii  the  administration  of  justice,  and  the 
other  was  deputed  to  command  the  militia.  (4.)  The  militia  of  each 
city  consisted  of  several  bodies,  from  parishes  or  classes  of  the 
people.  (5.)  Each  division  was  led  by  a  gonfalonure,  or  standard 
bearer. 

XIIL— (1.)  The  two  chief  magistrates  of  a  city  usually  retained 
the  ancient  title  of  consuls.  (2.)  There  was  a  secret  council,  or 
consilio,  chosen  for  each  city,  composed  of  a  few  members  selected 
from  each  division  of  the  citizens.  (3.)  There  was  also  a  legisla- 
tive council,  consisting  of  a  limited  number  of  citizens,  who  pre- 
pared measures  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  assembled  people.  (4.) 
The  secret  consilio  had  charge  of  finance,  and  the  levying  and  col- 
lecting of  taxes  or  contributions,  for  goverument  expenses.  (5  ) 
The  city  magistrates  consisted  of  consuls  and  counsellors,  and  were 
called  signoria. 

XIV. (1.)  Whilst  cities  were  organized  by  the  people  in    this 

manner,  strong  castles  were  built  by  the  nobility  wherever  they 
owned  land.  (2.)  The  most  powerful  of  the  aristocracy  erected 
their  stron'j-holds  on  high  mountains,  almost  inaccessible  to  attack. 
(3.)  Less  important  lords  raised  towers  and  castles  on  the  plains, 

(4.)  What  was  the  consequence? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  was  an  Italian  parliament?  (2.)  What  did  citizens  do? 
(3.)  What  authority  had  the  nnigistrates?  (4.)  Of  what  did  the  militia  con- 
sist?    (5.)  What  is  said  of  a  (lonfaloniere  ? 

Xm.— (1.)  What  title  had  the  chief  magi.strates  ?  (2.)  What  council  was 
created?  (3.)  What  other  council  was  constituted?  (4.)  Of  what  did  the 
couKilio  have  charge ?     {5-)  What  were  the  liignoria  ? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  castles?  (2.)  Where  did  the  most  powerful 
cobk-s  build  castles ?     {Z.)   Where  did  minor  nobles  erect  them ? 


Italian  Republics.  309 

in  vicinity  of  cities.  (4.)  The  mouutaia  nobles  preserved  an  inde- 
pendent and  arrogant  auihority  over  districts  vvliich  sul)mitted  to 
them.  (5.)  Those  who  dwelt  in  the  plain  country  enrolled  them- 
selves as  citizens  of  some  republic,  and  became  the  aristocracy  of 
Italian  cities.  (G.)  Consuls,  gonfalonieres  and  other  magistrates,  or 
leaders,  were  generally  elected  by  the  people  from  among  these 
nobles. 

XV. — (1.)  The  city  of  Florence  was  the  most  democratic  body- 
politic  in  Italy,  during  its  early  period  of  free  institutions.  (2.)  The 
first  republican  movement  of  Florentines  was  to  divide  themselves 
into  fifty  companies  of  militia,  each  with  a  chosen  captain.  (3.)  Tiie 
fifty  captains  formed  a  representative  body,  or  council  of  the  state. 
(4.)  Two  chief  magistrates  were  chosen,  called  a  podesta,  and  a 
capiiano  del  popolo,  or  captain  of  the  people.  (5.)  The  first  was  a 
civil,  and  the  second  a  military,  head  of  the  republic. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  republic  was  divided  into  six  parishes,  each 
called  a  sestier.  (2.)  Each  sestier  elected  two  magistrates,  called 
anziani,  or  elders.  (3.)  The  twelve  magistrates  so  chosen  were 
called  the  signoria,  and  were  intrusted  with  authority  over  the 
podesta  and  captain  of  the  people.  (4.)  The  twelve  magistrates 
look  their  meals  together,  dwelt  at  the  same  public  palace,  and 
never  appeared  but  in  company.  (5.)  Their  term  of  oiEce  was 
limited  to  two  mouths. 

XVII. — (1.)  The  magistrates  called  anziani  afterward  gave  place 
to  the  priori  delle  arti,  or  presidents  of  arts.  (2.)  The  arts,  01 
trades,  signified  members  of  certain  trades  and  professions  associated 
as  corporations,  called   higher  and  lower  corporations.      (3.)  Ac 

(4.)  What  power  did  iiiouiitain  nobles  hold?  (5.)  What  did  the  nobles  resident 
oil  plains  do?     (6.)  Wliat  did  these  nobles  become? 

XV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Florence?  (2.)  VVliat  was  the  first  republican 
ir.ovenient  ?  (a.)  What  did  the  fit'ty  captains  form  ?  (4.)  What  chief  magis- 
trates were  chosen?     (a  )  What  authority  did  tiiese  magistrates  hold? 

XVI. — (1.)  How  was  the  Florentine  republic  divided?  (2.)  What  officers 
were  elected?  (o.)  What  is  s^iid  ol'  these  twelve  ?  (4.)  What  was  their  prac- 
tice ?     (5.)    What  was  their  term  of  olHce  ? 

XVII.— (1.)  What  cliange  was  afterward  made?  (2.)  Wnat  did  the  trades 
signify?     (3.)   W'lio  were  chosen  magistrates? 


31  o  History  of  Governments. 

first,  three,  and  subsequently  six,  repi-eseutatives  of  the  higher 
trades  were  chosen  magistrates.  (4.)  Tbe  priori  delle  arti  were 
chosen  for  two  months,  and  lived  together  in  the  public  palace,  as 
the  anziani  had  done. 

XVIII. — (1.)  At  the  head  of  the  college  of  arti  was  an  officer 
called  gonfalonier  of  justice.  (2.)  When  this  officer  displayed  the 
gonfalon,  or  standard,  of  the  republic,  all  citizens  were  obliged  to 
assemble  in  defence  of  the  state,  or  to  assist  in  executing  the  laws. 
(3.)  At  this  period,  nobles  were  excluded  from  office  by  law. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  corporations  of  trades,  dividing  Florentine  citi- 
zens, were  twenty-one  in  number.  (2.)  The  seven  higher  professions 
were  called  the  major  arts,  comprising  merchants,  manufacturers, 
scholars,  and  the  like.  (3.)  The  minor  arts  were  handicrafts  and 
rougher  arts  or  trades. 

XX. — (1.)  The  magistrates  of  the  Florentine  republic  were 
selected,  at  first,  by  drawing  lots.  (2.)  A  general  register  was 
previously  made,  comprising  all  citizens  thirty  years  of  age  who 
were  eligible  to  vote.  (3.)  Out  of  this  register  a  list  of  citizens 
suitable  to  hold  office  as  magistrates  was  selected  by  a  majority  of 
the  magistrates  in  power.  (4.)  Each  magistrate  had  a  right  to 
name  .'iome  candidate.  (5.)  The  list  of  candidates  was  then  sub- 
mitted to  thirty-six  deputies,  chosen  by  the  six  divisions  of  the  city, 
called  the  balia.  (6.)  The  balia  struck  out  whatever  names  they 
disagreed  to,  and  classified  the  rest.  (T.)  The  names  were  then 
divided  l)y  series,  placed  into  a  purse,  and  drawn  out  under  suitable 
supervision. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  people  of  Florence  continued  to  assemble  in 

(4.)   What  is  said  of  the  priori  delle  arti  ? 

XVm.— (1.)  W'hat  officer  was  at  ttie  head  of  the  arts,  or  trades?  (2.)  What 
were  citizens  obliged  to  do?     (3.)  What  peTSons  were  excluded  from  office? 

XIX. — (1.)  How  many  corporations  of  trades  were  there  ?  (2.)  What  were 
the  major  arts  ?     (.3.)   What  were  tiie  minor  arts  ? 

XX. — (1.)  How  were  magistrates  selected?  (2.)  What  was  previously  made? 
(3.)  What  list  was  prepared?  (4.)  W^hat  right  did  each  magistrate  possess? 
(5.)  What  was  the  balia?  (6.)  W  hat  did  the  ba'ia  do?  (7.)  What  waa  then 
done  with  the  names  ? 

XXI.— -(1.)  What  assemblies  continued? 


Italian  Republics,  31 1 

their  parliaments,  hold  ou  the  public  square.  (2.)  There  they  voted, 
by  raising  their  voices,  on  propositions  submitted  to  them  by  the 
signoria.  (3.)  They  claimed,  as  the  whole  people,  to  be  superior  to 
laws  and  constitutions.  (4.)  The  popular  parliament  thus  possessed 
irresponsible  supremacy,  liable  to  be  influenced  for  evil  by  designing 
demagogues.  (5.)  The  balia  represented  the  power  of  the  people 
as  their  chosen  delegates. 

XXII. — (1.)  An  aristocracy  of  wealth  grew  up,  from  the  election 
of  rich  merchants  to  principal  offices.  (2.)  These  persons  succeeded 
in  admitting  members  of  the  nobility  to  a  share  in  government. 
(3.)  A  combination  of  the  nobles  and  wealthy  families  followed 
this  encroachment  on  democracy.  (4.)  The  minor  corporations 
asserted  their  rights,  from  time  to  time,  and  at  one  period  succeeded 
ill  electing  a  woollen  worker  to  the  chief  magistracy.  (5.)  The 
influence  of  wealthy  classes  finally  predominated,  and  the  people 
lost  all  voice  in  the  administration  of  public  affairs.  (6.)  The  prin- 
cipal magistrate  became  a  hereditary  duke,  and  the  republic  of 
Florence  merged  into  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Tuscany. 

XXIII. (1.)  The  republic  of  Florence  lost  its  democratic  cha- 
racter by  permitting  the  influence  of  wealth  and  luxurious  display 
to  destroy  the  early  love  of  individual  freedom.  (2.)  The  division 
of  citizens  into  distinct  ranks,  based  on  their  trades,  occasioned 
jealousies  between  persons  claiming  equal  privileges  of  voting.  (3.) 
Different  arts  and  trades  became  opposed,  and  each  desired  its  own 
representatives  in  government,  without  respect  to  fitness  for  office. 
(4.)  The  contentions  thus  engendered  afforded  opportunities  for 
ambitious  possessors  of  wealth  and  title  to  combine  against  an  un- 
educated and  dependent  populace.     (5.)  Then  followed  misguided 

(2.)  What  did  the  people  do  ?  (3.)  What  did  they  claim  to  be  ?  (4.)  What 
was  the  effect  of  this?     (6.)  What  did  the  balia  represent  ? 

XXII. (1.)  What  grew  up  in   the  state?     (2.)  What  did  the  aristocrats 

succeed  in  doing?  (3  )  What  combination  followed?  (4.)  What  did  the  minor 
corporations  assert?  (.5.)  What  finally  occurred?  (6.)  What  government  re- 
placed popular  institutions  ? 

XXIII. (1.)  How  did  the  Florentine?  republic  lose  its  popular  freedom? 

(2.)  What  jealousies  were  occasioned?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  arts  and  trades? 
4.)  What  did  their  contentions  afford?     (5.)  What  followed  in  the  state? 


312  History  of  Governments. 

democracy,  disorder  and  anarchy,  ended  only  by  the  usurped  govern- 
ment of  tyrants. 

XXIV. — (1.)  The  Venetian  Republic  was  founded  by  fugitives 
from  various  parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  driven  from  their  homes 
by  barbarians.  (2.)  The  fugitives  settled  several  small  islands 
situated  on  the  marshes  of  tlie  Adriatic  shore.  (3.)  The  first 
colonists  supported  themselves  by  fishing,  manufacturing  salt,  and 
voyaging  in  light  vessels  for  trading  purposes. 

XXV. — (1.)  The  population  of  each  island  constituted  a  sepa- 
rate independent  body-politic.  (2.)  They  administered  public 
affairs  in  a  simple  way,  by  tribunes  and  popular  assemblies.  (3.) 
Afterward,  citizens  of  all  the  islands  met  in  a  convention,  and 
elected  a  single  chief  called  a  doge,  or  duke.  (4  )  About  the  time 
of  Charlemagne  they  united  in  building  the  city  that  has  been  since 
known  as  Venice. 

XXVI. — (1.)  Many  families  of  ancient  Italian  nobility  were 
comprised  in  the  early  community  of  Venice:  (2.)  They  submitted 
to  laws  framed  by  the  popular  majority,  and  gained  possession  of 
magistracies  only  by  degrees.  (3.)  The  doge  of  Venice  was  an 
elected  ruler,  and  his  power  was  strictly  limited  by  regulations  made 
in  assemblies  of  tlie  people.  (4.)  When  the  aristocracy  became 
more  influential,  they  succeeded  in  having  autliority  given  to  the 
doge  to  appoint  a  private  council  from  members  of  ancient  families. 

XXVII. —  (1.)  A  grand  council  of  state  was  formed,  numbering 
four  hundred  and  eighty  persons.  (2.)  The  republic  was  previously 
divided  into  six  sections.     (3.)  Each   section  chose  annually  two 

XXIV.— (1  )  How  was  the  Venetian  republic  founded?  (2.)  Where  did  the 
fugitives  locate?     (3.)  How  were  they  supported  ? 

XXV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  each  island?  (2.)  How  did  they  administer 
public  atiairs?  (3.)  What  combination  was  afterward  formed?  (4.)  What 
was  done  about  the  time  of  Charlemagne? 

XXVI.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Venetian  community?  ('2.)  What  of  the 
nobility?  (3.)  What  was  the  doge's  position  ?  (4.)  What  did  the  aristocracy 
succeed  in  doing? 

XXVII. — (1.)  What  body  of  representatives  was  constituted?  (2.)  How 
was  the  republic  previously  divided?     (8.)  What   did   each  section  choose? 


Italian  Republics.  •      313 

graad  electors,  or  tribunes,  as  popular  representatives.  (4.)  The 
twelve  electors  so  appointed  named  the  four  hundred  and  eighty 
members  of  the  grand  council.  (5.)  No  more  than  four  members 
of  any  one  family  could  be  named.  (6.)  The  same  persons  could 
hold  office  any  number  of  terms.  (1.)  It  soon  became  a  custom  to 
reelect  all  who  served  well,  dropping  only  those  who  had  become 
unpopular. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  The  grand  council  elected  from  its  own  members 
all  other  officers  of  state.  (2  )  They  chose  the  doge,  and  six  coun- 
sellors of  the  red  robe,  to  constitute  a  Signoria.  (3.)  The  doge  was 
clidsen  for  life,  the  red-roloe  counsellors  for  a  term  of  eight  months. 
(4.)  Another  council  of  sixty  members,  called  the  Pregadi,  was 
appointed  each  year.  (5.)  The  grand  council  also  chose  a  body 
of  forty  judges,  called  the  Quarantia,  to  take  charge  of  criminal 
justice. 

XXIX. — (1.)  The  doge  was  sworn  to  execute  the  laws  and 
guard  the  liberties  of  the  republic.  (2.)  When  he  died,  a  commis- 
sion of  inquiry  was  appointed  to  ascertain  if  he  had  exceeded  his 
powers.  (3.)  If  such  appeared  to  be  the  case,  his  heirs  were  held 
responsible  for  all  damage  to  the  state. 

XXX. — (1.)  The  grand  council  afterward  provided  for  select- 
ing the  doge  by  committees  and  the  drawing  of  lots.  (2  )  They 
first  appointed  a  commission  by  lot  from  the  whole  body  of  coun- 
sellors. (3.)  The  members  of  this  commission  named  a  smaller 
committee.  (4.)  The  conmiittee  thus  appointed  drew  lots  for  the 
choice  of  a  body  of  one  quarter  of  its  members.     (5.)  At  last  the 

(4.)  What  did  the   twelve   electors  do?      (5.)  What  restriction   was  made? 
[^.)  What  could  the  same  persons  do?     (.7.)   What  was  the  consequence? 

XXVin.— (1.)  What  did  the  grand  council  do?  (2.)  How  did  they  form 
the  signoria?  (3.)  How  long  did  these  magistrates  hold  office?  (4.)  What 
other  council  was  appointed  annually  ?     (5.)  What  is  said  of  the  quarantia  ? 

XXIX.— (1.)  What  was  the  doge  sworn  to  do?  (i.)  What  took  place  at  hia 
death  ?     (3.)  What  was  the  result? 

XXX. —  (1.)  For  what  did  the  grand  council  afterward  provide?  (2.)  What 
body  did  they  first  appoint?  (3.)  What  did  the  members  of  the  first  commia- 
sion  name?  (4.)  What  did  the  committee  do?  (5.)  What  result  was  reached 
at  last  ? 

14 


c^^     *  History  of  Governments. 

number  of  commissioners  was  reduced  to  forty-(  ne,  and  these 
elected  the  doge  by  a  majority  of  twenty-five  votes. 

XXXI. — (1.)  The  people  were  deprived  of  all  liberty  in  the 
choice  of  their  magistrates.  (2.)  At  a  later  period  the  privilege 
of  choosing  their  twelve  electors  was  also  taken  from  the  citizens  at 
large.  (3.)  The  quarantia,  or  forty  criminal  judges,  were  empow- 
ered to  overlook  the  list  of  grand  counsellors  every  year,  strike  off 
such  as  were  not  suitable,  and  fill  up  vacancies.  (4.)  This  was  the 
beginning  of  that  hereditary  aristocracy  which  ruled  Venice  always 
after. 

XXXII. — (1.)  The  names  of  all  members  of  the  grand  council 

were  then  inscribed  in  a  register  called  the  Golden  Book.  (2.)  The 
quarantia  were  instructed  to  select  no  new  man  for  membership,  but 
only  members  of  families  which  had  previously  furnished  grand  coun- 
sellors. (3.)  All  limitation  as  to  number  was  abandoned,  and  any 
Venetian  twenty-five  years  of  age,  descended  from  a  grand  counsel- 
lor, became  entitled  to  sit  as  a  member  of  the  body. 

XXXIII. — (1.)  The  organization  of  a  Venetian  aristocracy  was 
completed  by  the  creation  of  a  body  of  supreme  magistrates  called 
the  Council  of  Ten.  (2.)  This  body  consisted  of  ten  counsellors  of 
the  black  robe,  annually  elected  by  the  grand  council,  assisted  by 
six  counsellors  of  the  red  robe  and  the  doge,  as  members  of  the 
signoria.  (3.)  The  Council  of  Ten  was  intrusted  with  a  power 
superior  to  the  laws.  (4.)  Its  members  were  deputed  to  watch 
over  the  nobles  and  punish  their  crimes  against  the  state.  (5.)  The 
deliberations  and  action  of  these  magistrates  were  secret,  and  the 

XXXI. — (I.)  Of  what  were  the  Venetian  people  deprived?  (2.)  What 
encroachments  were  made  at  a  later  period  ?  (3.)  To  what  body  was  given 
the  power  of  revising  the  list  of  grand  counsellors?  (4.)  Of  what  this  was 
the  beginning? 

XXXn.—0-)  ^Vhat  names  were  then  registered?  (2.)  What  instructions 
were  given  to  the  quarantia?  (3.)  What  persons  were  allowei  to  be  grand 
counsellors  ? 

XXXm.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  Council  of  Ten?  (2.)  Of  what  persons 
did  this  body  consist?  (3.)  What  was  its  pwwer?  (4.)  What  were  its  -neni 
bers  deputed  to  do?     (5.)  What  is  sai<*  *)f  these  magistrates? 


Italian  Republics.  315 

Mitbority  of  their  tribunal  was  unlimited  over  every  citizen.     (6.) 
T'.iey  controlled  au  organization  of  spies  and  police. 

XXXIV.— (1.)  The  republic  of  Sienna  was  organized  as  au 
aristocracy  of  citizens,  excluding  members  of  the  nobility.  (2.)  The 
signoria  consisted  of  nine  magistrates,  choseu  for  two  months.  (3.) 
The  signoria  assumed  tyrannical  authority,  and  was  replaced  by  a 
magistracy  of  twelve  members.  (4.)  Sienna  experienced  all  the 
evils  of  power  exercised  by  an  ignorant  populace. 

XXXV.— (1.)  The  republic  of  Lucca  passed  through  various 
forms  of  popular  organization.  (2.)  Its  later  administrations  were 
aristocratic,  the  chief  offices  being  confined  to  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  families,  whose  members  exercised  power  by  rotation. 
(3.)  Its  authorities  consisted  of  a  gonfalonier,  nine  anziani,  or 
elders,  a  legislature  of  thirty-six  members,  and  a  grand  council  of 
ninety. 

XXXVI.  -(1.)  The  republic  of  Genoa  was  ruled  by  an  aristo- 
cracy of  noble  and  wealthy  families.  (2.)  The  names  of  these  fami- 
lies were  inscribed  in  a  golden  book,  like  that  established  in  Venice. 
(3.)  The  number  registered  did  not  comprise  more  than  one  hundred 
and  seventy  families. 

XXXVII. — (1 )  A  chief  magistrate,  called  Boge,  was  elected  by 
all  the  people.  (2.)  A  council  of  state  was  constituted  from  mem- 
bers of  the  aristocratic  classes.  (3.)  The  doge  was  required  to  be 
fifty  years  of  age,  and  to  reside  in  the  Palazzo  ddla  Signoria,  where 
the  senate  held  its  sessions. 

XXXVIII. — (1.)  The  doge  exercised  the  right  of  proposing  all 

((■)  )  What  (lid  they  control? 

XXXIV. -(1.)  What  is  said  of  Sienna?  (2.)  Of  what  did  its  signoria  con- 
q'st  ?     (3.)  What  befell  the  signoria  ?     (4.)  What  did  Sienna  experience  ? 

XXXV. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Lucca  ?  (2.)  What  were  its  later  adminls- 
trationa  ?     (3.)  Of  what  did  its  authorities  consist? 

XXXVL— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Genoa?  (2.)  What  of  a  golden  book? 
(3.)  What  was  the  number  registered  ? 

XXXVIL— (1.)  What  is  said  of  a  doge?  (2.)  How  was  a  council  of  state 
formed?     (3.)  What  was  required  of  the  doge? 

XXXVin. — (1.)  What  is  said  concerning  la^-s? 


qi6  History  of  Governmenis. 

laws  for  passage  by  the  senate,  and  none  could  be  enacted  without 
his  acquiescence.  (2.)  All  decrees  and  orders  of  the  republic  were 
issued  in  the  name  of  its  first  magistrate. 

XXXIX. — (1.)  The  doge  was  at  first  chosen  to  office  for  a 
term  of  two  years,  and  was  then  obliged  to  serve  as  a  senator  and 
procurator  for  five  years,  before  he  became  eligible  to  a  second 
election.  (2.)  Afterward,  the  chief  magistrate  was  chosen  for 
life. 

XL. — (1.)  The  doge  was  assisted  in  his  administration  by  twelve 
governors  and  eight  procurators  (not  including  ex-doges  who  served 
in  the  latter  positions).  (2.)  The  procurators  and  governors  were 
elected  for  two  years,  and  formed  a  government  or  privy  council. 
(3.)  The  procurators  had  charge  of  all  financial  matters  of  the 
republic. 

XLI. — (1.)  In  earlier  days  of  the  Genoese  republic,  its  sove- 
reignty was  possessed  by  two  bodies  of  citizens  called  the  Great 
Council  and  the  Smaller  Council.  (2.)  The  first,  of  three  hundred 
members,  was  constituted  from  Genoese  nobles  twenty-two  years 
old.  (3.)  The  second,  of  one  hundred  members,  was  selected  from 
the  older  families  of  the  state. 

XIjII. — (1.)  The  two  councils  possessed  the  right  to  deliberate, 
in  connection  with  the  governors  and  procurators,  upon  laws,  cus- 
toms, taxes  and  levies,  a  majority  vote  deciding  all  questions.  (2.) 
The  smaller  council  negotiated  peace,  declared  war,  and  made 
alliances,  four-fifths  deciding  all  questions. 

XLIII. — (I.)  The  Genoese  nobility  comprised  two  orders,  termed 


(2.)  In  whose  name  were  laws  issued? 

XXXIX.— (1.)  What  was  the  doge's  term  of  office?  ('2.)  How  was  this 
regulation  changed  ? 

XL. — (1.)  Who  assisted  the  doge?  (2."'  What  is  said  of  these  officers?  (3.) 
Of  what  did  the  procurators  have  charge? 

XLI. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  early  government  in  Genoa?  (2.)  What  waa 
the  first  of  these  bodies?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  other? 

XLII. — (1.)  What  right  of  deliberation  had  the  two  councils?  (2.)  What 
powers  did  the  smaller  council  exercise  ? 

XLIII (1.)  What  did  the  nobility  comprise? 


Italian  Republics.  3^7 

old  and  new.  (2.)  The  old  nobility  was  confined  to  twenty-eight 
families,  including  the  Grimaldi,  Fieschi,  Doria,  Spinola,  and  others. 
(3.)  The  new  nobility  numbered  four  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
families.  (4.)  The  doge  could  be  chosen  from  either  order,  as  en- 
rolled in  the  Golden  Book. 

XLIV. — (1.)  Milan,  Bologna,  and  other  Italian  cities  and  states, 
partook,  more  or  less,  of  a  republican  character,  at  different  periods 
of  their  history.  (2.)  Like  Florence  and  Venice,  they  fell  under  the 
power  of  aristocratic  families,  or  military  oligarchies.  (3.)  Tyranny 
and  hereditary  monarchy  followed,  till  all  at  length  succumbed  to 
foreign  power.  (4.)  The  history  of  Florence  and  Venice  is  the 
history  of  all  others,  in  respect  of  prosperity  and  decline. 

XLV. — (1.)  The  changes  of  Italian  governments  exhibit  the 
danger  of  encouraging  distinctions  of  classes,  whether  of  poor  or 
rich.  (2.)  The  rise  and  progress  of  republicanism  in  Italian  cities 
were  based  on  virtue  and  industry  in  the  people  at  large.  (3.)  Its 
decline  and  fall  were  caused  by  popular  ignorance  and  servility. 
controlled  by  luxurious  and  ambitious  claimants  to  superior  birth. 
(4.)  Italian  republics  were  prevented  from  uniting  as  a  confedera- 
tion by  the  jealousies  of  arrogant  families,  who  divided  communities 
and  individuals  in  their  respective  causes.  (5.)  Venetia,  on  the 
Italian  peninsula,  is  now  governed  as  a  province  of  Austria,  -md 
the  remainder  of  Italy  is  organized  under  royal  governments. 


(2.)  How  was  the  old  nobility  limited?  (3.)  What  did  the  new  number? 
(4.)  From  what  was  the  doge  chosen  ? 

XLIV.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  other  Italian  cities  and  states?  (2.)  What 
happened  to  them?    (3.)  What  followed?    (4.)  What  is  said  of  their  histories? 

XLV.— (1.)  What  do  the  changes  of  Italian  governments  exhibit?  (2.)  What 
is  said  of  Italian  republicanism?  (3.)  What  of  its  decay?  (4.)  How  was 
Italian  confederation  prevented?  (6.)  What  is  the  present  condition  of  Italian 
states  t 


CHAPTER  IV. 

HANSEA     IC     LEAGUE      OF     FREE     CITIES. 

I. — (1.)  When  the  feudal  system  began  to  oppress  all  rapka 
below  nobility,  in  France,  Germany,  and  Italy,  the  trading  class  of 
every  community  adopted  measures  to  protect  its  members.  (2.) 
By  means  of  commerce,  individuals  grew  wealthy,  and  made  their 
riches  the  means  of  securing  special  privileges  from  the  nobility  or 
landholding  lords. 

II. — (1.)  The  first  privilege  obtained  by  cities  was  that  of  build- 
ing walls,  and  the  next  was  that  of  choosing  their  local  magistrates. 
(2.)  These  privileges  were  usually  secured  by  written  guaranties 
called  charters,  signed  by  the  monarchs.  (3.)  Many  cities  obtained 
such  charters  from  the  sovereigns  of  France  and  Germany,  and  In 
consequence  became  rich  and  flourishing  capitals. 

Ill, — (1.)  Chartered  or  free  cities,  organized  their  government 
generally  on  an  aristocratic  basis.  (2.)  They  became  places  of 
refuge  for  individuals  oppressed  by  feudal  usages.  (3.)  Their  chief 
citizens  embarked  in  commercial  enterprises,  and  grew  to  be  wealthy 
and  powerful  enough  to  defy  princes  and  nobles. 

IV". — (1.)  A  great  commercial  and  political  combination  of 
chartered  cities  was  formed  in  the  twelfth  century.  (2.)  It  became 
known  as  the  Hanseatic  League  of  Free  Cities.  (3.)  Hanse 
signifies  an  association  for  mutual  dependence.     (4.)  The  German 


I. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  trading  classes?  (2.)  What  was  the  result  of  com- 
merce ? 

n. — (1.)  What  privileges  were  obtained  by  cities?  (2.)  How  were  these 
privileges  secured  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  concerning  such  charters  ? 

m. — (1.)  How  were  chartered  cities  generally  governed?  (2.)  What  did 
they  become?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  their  chief  citizens? 

rv. — (1.)  What  combination  was  formed?  (2.)  Under  what  name  did  it 
become  known  ?  (3.)  What  does  the  word  ^o!?(.se  signify?  (4.)  What  cities 
818 


Hanseatic  League  of  Free  Cities.  319 

cities  of  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremeu,  were  at  the  bead  of  this 
league,  which  numbered  at  one  period  eighty-five  cities.  (5.)  The 
merchants  of  allied  cities  engrossed  nearly  all  the  commerce  of 
Europe,  and  became  so  formidable  to  monarchy,  that  many  kings 
compelled  their  cities  to  withdraw  from  the  league. 

V. — (1.)  The  Hanseatic  League  of  Cities  preserved  the  spirit  of 
free  institutions  during  all  the  feudal  period.  (2.)  Through  the 
power  and  influence  exercised  by  these  confederated  communities, 
merchants,  manufacturers,  and  artisans,  were  enabled  to  assert  their 
independence  of  claims  that  were  founded  on  rank  alone.  (3.)  The 
democratic  or  middle  classes  found  leisure  and  means  to  educate 
themselves  and  children.  (4.)  Industry  and  enterprise  were  mea- 
sured against  idleness  and  arrogance,  and  freedom  of  commerce 
prepared  the  way  for  freedom  of  thought. 

VI. — (1.)  German  Free  Cities  were  originally  seats  of  powerful 
landholding  nobles  or  dignitaries  of  the  church.  (2.)  Most  of  them 
])urchased  their  first  charters  from  the  emperor ,  for  large  sums  of 
money  contributed  by  wealthy  members  of  the  community.  (3.) 
The  citizens  were  usually  divided  into  three  classes.  (4.)  First  came 
the  class  of  free  citizens,  entitled  to  hold  office  ;  second,  the  out- 
side citizens,  composed  of  farmers,  strangers,  and  soldiers  ;  and 
third,  corporations  or  trades-unions. 

VII. — (1.)  Several  Free  Cities  of  France  were  noted  as  pow- 
erful and  flourishing  municipalities.  (2.)  The  cities  of  Liege, 
Ghent,  Bruges,  and  other  P'iemish  chartered  corporations,  chose 
their  own  magistrates,  and  established  strong  bodies  of  militia  to 
defend  their  privileges,  even  against  kings.  (3.)  The  popul?»^ion 
of  every  city  was  organized  into  corporations,  or  guilds,  of  trades:^ 

headed  the  League  ?     (5  )  What  is  said  of  merchants  of  the  allied  cities? 

V. — (1.)  What  spirit  did  the  Hanseatic  League  preserve?  (2.)  What  effect 
was  manifested?  (3.)  How  were  the  people  benefited?  (4.)  What  good 
results  followed  ? 

VI.— (1)  What  were  German  Free  Cities  originally?  (2.)  How  did  they 
obtain  charters?  (3.)  How  were  citizens  usually  divided?  (4.)  What  were 
these  classes  ? 

Vn.— ,1.)  What  is  said  of  French  Free  Cities?  (2.)  Wliat  di i  they  estab- 
lish?    (3.)  How  were  their  citizens  organized? 


320  History  of  Governments. 

men,  each  with  its  chief,  or  headman.  (4.)  Military  captains  of 
troops,  both  of  horse  and  foot,  were  appointed  by  local  magistrate? 
to   lead    the  local  forces  in  time  of  danger. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  Hanseatic  League  of  Cities  became  enfeebled 
by  local  factions  and  domestic  quarrels,  caused  by  distinctions  among 
citizens.  (2.)  Wealthy  families  grew  luxurious  in  habit,  and  arro- 
gant in  pretensions.  (3.)  The  people  lost  their  independence,  and 
the  body-politic  became  like  other  communities,  submissive  to  des- 
potic power.  (4.)  Of  the  ancient  confederation,  only  three  cities, 
Lubeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen,  are  now  known  as  Hanse  Towns. 


CHAPTER  V. 

MODERN      FREE      CITIES. 

I. — (1.)  The  municipality  of  Hamburg  is  constituted  as  a  mixed 
aristocratic  and   democratic   commonwealth,      (2.)  There  are    no 
nobility,   hereditary    magistrates,  or   privileged   classes.      (3.)   Ah' 
citizens  are  considered  to  have  an  equal  interest  in  the  support  of 
municipal  institutions. 

II. — (1.)  Government  consists  of  a  senate  and  three  assemblies, 
or  colleges  of  citizens.  (2.)  The  senate  is  composed  of  four  magis- 
trates called  burgomasters,  four  called  syndics,  four  secretaries, 
and  twenty-four  counsellors.  (3.)  Three  of  the  burgomasters  and 
eleven  of  the  counsellors  must  be  lawyers,  and  the  remainder  are 
merchants. 

(4.)  What  leaders  were  appointed  ? 

Vin.— (1.)  How  did  the  Hanseatic  League  become  weakened?  (2.)  What 
is  said  of  wealthy  families?  (3.)  What  followed  this?  (4.)  What  cities  of  the 
League  now  remain  ? 

I. — (1.)  How  is  the  municipality  of  Hamburg  constituted?  (2.)  What  dis- 
tinctions do  not  exist?     (3.)  How  are  all  citizens  regarded? 

II.— (1.)  Of  what  does  Hamburg  government  consist?  (2.)  How  is  the  sea 
ate  composed?     (3.)  What  qualifications  must  they  have? 


Modern  Free  Cities.  321 

III. — (1.)  Tlip.  four  .syndics  are  lawyers,  who  are  consulted  for 
their  opinion  upon  all  legal  questions,  but  have  no  vote  in  the  sen- 
ate. (2.)  The  qualifications  of  a  citizen  for  the  post  of  senator 
consist  of  three.  (3.)  He  must  be  a  native  of  Hamburg,  thirty 
years  of  age,  and  a  member  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  (4.)  Tlie  sen- 
ate is  a  permanent  body,  having  power  to  fill  all  vacancies  in  its 
own  ranks.  (5 )  A  vacancy  is  filled  partly  by  ballot  and  partly 
by  lot. 

rV. — (1.)  All  the  names  of  senators  are  written  on  slips  of  paper, 
which  are  put  into  a  box.  (2.)  In  another  box  are  placed  an 
equal  number  of  slips,  all  blank  but  four,  on  which  are  written  the 
word  ''proposed.''^  (3.)  The  two  youngest  senators  then  draw  a 
slip  from  each  box,  till  the  four  inscribed  with  "pxoposed"  are 
drawn. 

V. — (1.)  The  four  senators  who  have  their  names  drawn  out  at 
the  same  time  with  four  slips  containing  the  word  "  proposed,"  are 
each  entitled  to  propose  a  citizen  to  fill  the  vacant  seat  in  the  sen- 
ate, (2.)  When  four  candidates  are  selected,  their  names  must  be 
written  on  four  ballots,  which  are  folded  and  placed  in  one  box. 
(8.)  Four  other  ballots,  on  one  of  which  is  the  word  "  chosen,"  are 
placed  in  the  other  box.  (4.)  The  two  youngest  senators  then  draw 
as  before,  until  the  ballot  containing  the  word  "  chosen  "  is  drawn, 
and  the  name  drawn  with  that  ballot  is  the  name  of  the  new 
senator. 

VI. — (1.)  A  citizen  so  elected  senator  is  obliged  to  accept  the 
post  or  quit  the  city  of  Hamburg.  leaving  one-tenth  of  his  property 
behind  him.     (2.)  He  is  required  to  take  an  oath  of  oflSce,  and  then 

III. — (1.)  What  are  the  foar  yyudics?  (2)  How  many  qualifications  must 
a  senator  have?  (3.)  What  are  they  ?  (4.)  What  is  the  senate  ?  (5.)  How  is 
a  vacancy  filled  ? 

IV. — (1.)  What  names  are  put  into  a  box  ?  (2.)  What  are  placed  in  another 
box  ?     (3.)  What  is  then  done  ? 

V. — (1.)  Who  are  entitled  to  propose  candidates?  (2.)  What  is  done  with 
candidates'  names?  (3  )  What  are  placed  in  the  other  box  ?  (4.)  What  then 
Cakes  place  ? 

VI. — (1.)  What  is  an  elected  senator  obliged  to  do?  (2.)  What  else  is 
required  of  him  ? 

14* 


322  History  of  Governments. 

remain  in  his  home  till  the  next  Sunday,  when  he  is  expected  to 
attend  church  with  the  rest  of  the  senate. 

V"II. — (1.)  On  first  taking  his  seat,  a  newly-elected  senator 
wears  a  black  velvet  cloak,  without  sleeves.  (2.)  Afterward  he  is 
permitted  to  wear  the  full  senatorial  robe,  consisting  of  a  velvet 
cloak,  with  sleeves,  and  a  high-crowned,  round  hat,  covered  and 
fringed  with  black. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  senate  of  Hamburg  is  the  governing  body,  ap- 
pointing agents  and  consuls  to  foreign  countries,  and  receiving 
foreign  envoys.  (2.)  It  has  authority  to  make  all  contracts,  issue 
orders,  grant  letters-patent,  and  supervise  the  action  of  tribunals 
and  other  departments  of  justice  and  administration. 

IX. — (1.)  Next  to  the  senate  comes  the  general  assembly  of 
citizens,  called  Burgerschaft.  (2.)  This  is  the  body-politic  of  Ham- 
burg, and  is  divided  into  five  classes,  or  parishes,  of  citizens,  who 
elect  three  legislative  chambers  called  colleges. 

X. — (1.)  The  first  of  the  three  colleges  is  called  the  College  of 
Aldermen.  (2.)  It  consists  of  fifteen — three  being  chosen  by,  the 
privileged  inhabitants  of  each  one  of  the  five  parishes.  (3.)  The 
members  of  this  college  have  the  right  to  attend  the  meetings  of 
the  senate,  and  speak  on  any  proposition  therein  submitted.  (4.) 
They  may  impeach  any  senator  whom  they  suspect  of  infringing  the 
laws  of  Hamburg. 

XI. — (1.)  The  second  college  of  the  burgerschaft,  or  citizens,  is 
called  the  College  of  Sixty.  (2.)  It  is  composed  of  the  body  of 
aldermen  and  forty-five  other  citizens,  called  deacons,  nine  chosen 


Vn. — (1.)  What  does  a  newly  chosen  senator  wear?  (2.)  How  is  he  after- 
ward officia'ly  clothed? 

Vin. — (1.)  What  power  has  the  Hamburg  senate?  (2.)  What  is  it  em- 
powered to  do  ? 

IX.— 1 1.)  What  body  comes  next  to  the  senate  in  Hamburg?  (2.)  What  is 
said  of  the  Burgerschaft  ^ 

X (1.)  What  is  the  first  college  called?     (2.)  How  many  members  has  the 

college  of  aldermen?  (.3.)  What  rights  do  they  possess?  ('4.)  What  power 
may  they  exercise? 

XI.--(1.)  What  is  tJ.e  second  college  called?    (2.)  How  is  the  college  of 


Modem  Free  Cities.  323 

from  each  parish.     (3.)  The  duty  of  this  college  is  t3  watch  over 
the  lower  departments  of  government. 

XII. — (1.)  The  thiid  college  is  called  the  College  of  One  Hun- 
dred and  Eighty.  (2.)  It  consists  of  the  two  other  colleges  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty  citizens  called  sub-deacons,  twenty-four  chosen 
from  each  parish. 

XIII. — (1.)  Another  body  of  ten  members,  called  the  Chamber, 
is  constituted  by  election  of  two  citizens  from  each  parish.  (2.)  This 
chamber  is  chosen  for  ten  years,  and  its  duty  is  to  audit  the  public 
accounts  and  lay  them  before  the  senate. 

XIV. — (1.)  When  an  important  law  or  measure  is  proposed, 
the  general  body  of  citizens,  or  whole  biirgerschaft,  is  called  together 
by  the  senate  and  college  of  aldermen,  to  meet  in  the  senate  house. 
(2.)  It  is  requisite  that  at  least  two  hundred  citizens  shall  be 
present  in  this  assembly,  besides  the  colleges  and  senate. 

XV. — (1.)  A  written  explanation  of  the  proposed  law  or  measure 
is  given  to  the  chairman  of  each  parish.  (2.)  The  citizens  retire  to 
live  I'ooms,  each  according  to  his  parish,  to  discuss  and  vote  upon 
the  matter  before  them.  (3.)  No  member  of  one  parish  is  allowed 
to  go  into  the  room  of  another,  under  heavy  penalties. 

XVI. — (1.)  When  the  citizens,  each  in  his  own  parish,  have  de- 
cided their  opinions,  the  five  bodies  reassemble.  (2.)  The  question 
on  the  law  or  measure  is  taken  by  vote  of  the  parishes.  (3.)  If 
three  out  of  the  five  agree  to  the  proposition,  it  is  adopted  ;  if  not, 
it  is  rejected. 

sixty  composed ?     (3.)  What  is  its  duty? 

Xn.— (1.)  What  is  the  third  college  of  biirgerschaft  called?  (2.)  Of  what 
docs  the  college  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  consist  ? 

XIII. — (1.)  What  is  tlie  Chamber?  (2.)  What  is  the  duty  of  the  Hamburg 
Chamber  ? 

XrV. — (1.)  What  takes  place  when  an  important  measure  is  proposed  to  be 
passed?     (2.)  What  number  of  citizens  >i<.ust  assemble  ? 

XV. — (1.)  What  is  furnished  to  each  parish?  (2.)  What  do  the  citizens  do? 
(H.)  What  IS  not  allowed? 

XVI. — (].)  What  is  done  after  sufficient  deliberation?  (2.)  How  is  the 
question  taken,  on  adopting  the  law,  or  measure  ?  (3.)  What  is  requisite  to 
pass  the  law  ? 


324  History  of  Governments. 

XVII. — (1.)  There  are  two  classes  of  burghers,  or  citizens,  ir. 
Hamburg,  called  the  great  aud  small  citizens.  (2.)  The  distinction 
between  them  is  based  on  the  possession  of  property,  and  affects 
only  their  liberty  of  trade.  (3.)  Great  burghers  are  not  liable  to 
any  restrictions,  while  small  burghers  are  forbidden  to  do  wholesale 
business  in  their  own  names. 

XVIII. — (1.)  The  military  force  of  Hamburg  consists  of  about 
fifteen  hundred  foot  soldiers  and  a  militia  of  citizens  trained  to  arms, 
called  the  Burgher  Guard.  (2.)  Every  citizen  and  son  of  a  citizen 
is  obliged  to  serve  in  this  guard,  from  the  age  of  eighteen  to  forty- 
five  years,  providing  his  own  arms  and  clothing. 

XIX. — (l.)  The  highest  court  of  justice  in  Hamburg  is  composed, 
of  a  burgomaster,  worth  five  hundred  dollars,  ten  senators,  five 
lawyers,  and  five  merchants.  (2.)  This  court  passes  on  important 
civil  suits,  and  may  reverse  criminal  decisions  of  lower  tribunals. 
(3.)  A  lower  court,  composed  of  a  president,  two  judges  and  an 
actuary,  lawyers,  and  four  other  judges,  not  lawyers,  tries  criminal 
cases  and  small  civil  suits. 

XX. — (1.)  A  third  court  is  devoted  to  questions  affecting 
trade,  and  is  called  the  Court  of  Commerce.  (2.)  It  is  com- 
posed of  a  president,  vice-president,  nine  merchants  and  two  actu- 
aries. (3.)  The  court  is  held  twice  every  week,  in  two  divisions 
or  chambers. 

XXI. — (1.)  The  city  of  Lubeck,  originally  chief  of  Hanse  Towns, 
is  still  a  free  city,  like  Hamburg.-  (2.)  Its  government  is  intrusted 
to  a  senate  and  house  of  burgesses.     (3.)   Magistrates  are  chosen 

XVn. — (1.)  What  divisions  of  citizens  are  there  in  Hamburg?  (2.)  On 
what  is  the  distinction  between  them  based  ?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  two 
classes  ? 

XVni. — (1.)  Of  what  does  the  Hamburg  military  consist?  (2.)  How  is  the 
militia  formed  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  How  is  the  highest  judicial  court  composed?  (2.)  What  juris 
diction  has  this  court?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  a  lower  court  ? 

XX.  — (1.)  What  is  the  court  of  commerce?  (2.)  Of  what  persons  does  it 
consist?     (3.)  When  and  how  is  this  court  held? 

XXI.— (1  )  What  is  said  of  Lubeclt  ?     (2.)   What  is  its  government?     (3.) 


Modern  Free  Cities.  325 

by  members  of  these  bodies,  which  represent  the  incorporated  com- 
panies, or  trades  of  the  city.  (4.)  Lubeck,  like  Hamburg  and 
Bremen,  is  a  member  of  the  Germanic  Confederation,  in  which  it 
possesses  the  privilege  of  casting  a  single  vote  in  full  council. 

XXIL— (1.)  Bremen  is  the  third  of  the  free  towns  still  in  con- 
federation. (2.)  Its  government  is  similar  in  character  to  that 
exercised  in  Hamburg.  (3.)  The  principle  of  organization  is 
aristocratic. 

XXIII. — (1.)  Frankfort-on-the-Maine  remains  a  free  city, 
though  not  in  confederation  with  the  others.  (2.)  Its  legislation  is 
vested  in  a  senate  of  forty  two  members.  (3.)  The  right  of  voting 
for  magistrates  is  exercised  by  the  people,  under  some  restrictions 
as  to  qualifications. 


How  are  magistrates  appointed?  (4.)  Of  wlm;  other  confederation,  besides  the 
Hanseatic  League,  is  Lubeck  a  member  ? 

XXII. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Bremen?  (2.)  What  is  its  government? 
(  o.)  What  is  its  principle  of  organization? 

XXin.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Frankfort  ?  (2.)  What  of  its  legislature  ?  (3.) 
What  persons  exercise  suffrage? 


AMERICAN  REPUBLICAN    STATES. 


I, — (1.)  The  American  Republics  are  divided  into  those  of  North, 
Centra],  and  South  America.  (2.)  The  United  States  of  America 
is  the  general  name  given  to  a  political  union  of  the  more  northerly 
democratic  states,  governed  by  a  federal  head. 

II. — (1.)  The  Mexican  republic  consists  of  a  number  of  states  or 
provinces  confederated  under  one  central  government.  (2.)  The 
republics  of  Central  America  are  five  in  number,  each  independent 
of  the  other.  (3.)  Their  names  are  Costa  Rica,  Guatemala,  Nica- 
ragua, San  Salvador,  and  Honduras.  (4.)  The  republics  of  South 
America  are  independent  sovereignties,  with  democratic  forms  of 
government. 

III._(1.)  The  United  States  were  originally  colonies  planted  by 
British,  Dutch,  Swedish,  French,  and  Spanish  emigrants.  (2.) 
Thirteen  colonies  revolted  from  the  government  of  Great  Britain, 
and  formed  a  confederacy. 

IV. — (1.)  The  Mexican   republic   was   composed   of    provinces 


I._(l.)  How  are  American    republics  divided?     (2.)  What   is  the  United 
States  of  America  ? 

n. (1.)  Of  what  doe.^  the  Mexican  republic  consist?     (2.)  What  is  said  of 

Central  American  republics?     (Z.)  What  are  their  names?     (4.)  What  are  the 
South  American  republics  ? 

ni.— (1.)  What  were  the  United  States  originally?     (2.)  What  is  said  of 
thirteen  colonies  ? 

IV. — (1.)  Of  what  was  the  Mexican  republic  composed? 
«26 


American  Republican  States.  327 

settled  by  Spaniards,  who  conquered  the  previous  inhabitants.  (2.) 
They  revolted  from  Spain,  and  organized  a  republican  government. 

v.— (1.)  The  Central  and  South  American  republics  were  for- 
merly military  and  civil  colonies,  planted  by  Spaniards,  who  con- 
quered the  Peruvians  and  other  aboriginal  nations.  (2.)  Their  in- 
habitants threw  off  the  domination  of  Spaiu,  and  formed  separate 
independent  states. 

VI. — (1.)  The  Haytien  republican  state  is  composed  of  negroes, 
mulattoes,  and  other  descendants  of  Africans,  formerly  held  as  slaves 
by  Spanish  settlers.  (2.)  This  state  occupies  a  portion  of  the 
island  of  St.  Domingo. 

VII.— (1.)  The  republic  of  Peru  is  governed  according  to  a 
constitution,  by  representative  bodies.  (2.)  The  legislature  is  com- 
posed of  two  houses,  a  senate  and  chamber  of  deputies.  (3.)  One- 
half  the  number  of  senators  is  elected  every  four  years.  (4.)  One- 
third  of  the  deputies  is  chosen  every  two  years. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  chief  magistrate  is  styled  President,  and  is 
elected  ior  a  term  of  six  years.  (2.)  He  cannot  be  reelected  till 
six  years  elapse  after  his  term  closes.  (3.)  The  president  selects  a 
council  of  state  of  fifteen  persons.  (4.)  No  more  than  three  of 
this  council  can  belong  to  the  army,  and  no  more  than  three  can 
be  ecclesiastics. 

IX. — (1.)  The  leading  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  with  a  hier- 
archy consisting  of  one  archbishop  and  four  bishops.  (2.)  The 
tribunals  consist  of  a  supreme  court  in  the  capital  city,  a  superior 
court  in  each  department,   district  courts  in  smaller  circuits,  and 

(2.)  What  is  said  of  these  provinces? 

v.— (1.)  What  were  the  South  American  republics  formerly  ?  (2.)  What 
action  did  their  inhabitants  take  ? 

VI. — (1.)  Of  what  is  the  Haytien  state  composed?  (2.)  Where  is  this 
republic  established? 

VII.— (1.)  How  is  Peru  governed?  (2.)  How  is  the  legislature  composed? 
(3.)  When  are  senators  elected?     (4.)  When  are  deputies  chosen  ? 

VIII. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  chief  magistrate  ?  (2.)  How  is  the  presi- 
dent's office  limited  ?  (3.)  What  does  the  president  select  ?  (4.)  What  restrio 
tions  concern  the  council  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What   is   the    religion    of  state  ?     (2.)  What   are    the    tribunalflT 


^28  History  of  Governments. 

justices  of  the  peace.  (3.)  Each  department  of  the  republic  has  a 
police  superinteDdeut,  with  his  subordiuate  officials.  (4.)  There  are 
special  courts  iustituted  for  the  settlemeut  of  cases  among  the 
Indian  tribes,  and  for  the  mining  districts. 

X. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Bouvia  has  a  legislature  composed  of 
three  cliambers,  that  of  senators,  that  of  tribunes,  and  that  of  cen- 
sors. (2.)  The  president  holds  office  during  life,  and  has  the  power 
of  naming  his  successor. 

XI. — (1.)  The  Argextine  republic  consists  of  a  state  called  La 
Plata.  (2.)  It  formerly  belonged  to  a  confederacy  of  several  South 
American  provinces,  which  had  revolted  from  Spanish  rule.  (3.) 
The  president  of  La  Plata  possesses  many  arbitrary  powers. 
(4.)  The  legislature  is  constituted  of  delegates  elected  from  various 
districts,  and  representatives  of  the  clergy. 

XII. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Venezuela  is  divided  into  sixteen 
provinces,  each  of  which  elects  a  number  of  delegates  to  constitute 
two  houses  of  the  legislature.  (2.)  A  president  and  vice-president 
are  chosen  by  the  people  at  large.  (3.)  Other  departments  of  ad- 
ministration are  established  in  a  similar  manner  to  like  departments 
of  the  United  States  government. 

XIII. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Ecuador  is  divided  into  three  de- 
partments, with  subdivisions  or  districts.  (2.)  Delegates  are 
chosen  from  districts  to  constitute  a  legislature.  (3.)  The  popula- 
tion consists,  as  in  other  Spanish  American  states,  of  descendants  of 
Spaniards,  and  a  number  of  mixed  races,  of  various  complexions. 
(4.)  The  president  and  vice-president  compose  the  executive,  and  the 


(S.)  Wh.it  police  is  establislied  ?     (4.)   What  .special  courts  are  noticed  ? 

X.— <1.)  What  legislature  has  Bolivia?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  the  Bolivian 
president  ? 

XL— (1.)  What  is  the  Argentine  republic?  (2.)  To  what  did  it  formerly 
belong  ?  (3.)  What  is  said  of  the  president  ?  (4.)  How  is  the  legislature  con- 
stituted ? 

Xn. — (1.)  How  is  the  legislature  of  Venezuela  constituted  'i  (2.)  How  ia 
the  executive  formed  ?     (3.)  What  is  said  of  other  departments  ? 

Xm. — (1.)  How  is  Ecuador  divided  ?  (2.)  How  is  the  legislature  organized? 
(8)  What  is  said  of   the  population?     (4.)  What   constitutes  executive  and 


American   Republi.an  States.  32(, 

legislature  comprises  senate  and  liouse  of  representatives  (5.)  A 
council  of  state  is  appointed  to  assist  tlie  president.  (6.)  Suffrage 
is  exercised  by  persons  of  all  races,  and  the  privilege  of  holding 
office  is  open  to  all. 

XrV. — (1.)  The  republics  of  New  Granada,  Venezuela,  and 
Ecuador,  formerly  constituted  a  single  state  called  the  Colombian 
republic.  (2.)  New  Granada  is  now  an  independent  state,  with  a 
republican  constitution  resembling  that  of  the  American  republic. 
(3.)  A  president  and  a  legislature  of  two  houses  are  elected  by  the 
people.  (4.)  All  ranks  and  colors  possess  equal  rights  of  suffrage 
and  election  to  office.  (5.)  The  state  is  divided  into  seven  depart- 
ments and  two  territories,  with  thirty-six  provincial  subdivisions. 

XV. — (1.)  The  repubhc  of  Chili  is  divided  into  eleven  provin 
cial  departments,  or  states.  (2.)  The  general  government  is  con- 
ducted by  a  president  and  legislature.  (3.)  The  president  is  assisted 
in  the  administration  of  public  affairs  by  a  council  of  eight  mem- 
bers. (4.)  The  legislature  consists  of  a  senate  and  a  house  of 
deputies.  (5.)  The  senate  is  composed  of  persons  elected  for  nine 
years,  from  the  provinces,  two  being  allowed  to  each.  (6.)  One- 
third  of  the  senators  are  chosen  every  three  years.  (7.)  The  house 
of  deputies  is  elected  for  three  years,  by  the  people,  one  deputy 
being  chosen  for  every  twenty  thousand  inhabitants.  (8.)  The 
judiciary  consists  of  a  supreme  court,  court  of  appeals,  and  supe- 
rior courts.  (9.)  A  well-organized  militia,  called  the  national  guard, 
and  a  standing  army,  comprise  the  military  force  of  Chili. 

XVI. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Uraguay  is  governed  as  an  inde- 
pendent state,  under  a  constitution  similar  to  that  of  other  South 

le.^islative  bodies ?  (5.)  What  other  body  is  appointed?  (C.)  What  popular 
privileges  are  secured  ? 

XIV.— (1.)  What  states  were  formerly  comprised  in  a  single  republic? 
(2.)  What  is  New  Granada  now  ?  (3.)  What  authorities  are  popularly  chosen? 
(4.)  What  privileges  are  common  ?     (5.)  How  is  the  state  divided  ? 

XV.— U-)  HowisChiH  divided?  (2.)  How  is  its  government  conducted? 
(8.)  What  body  asgists  the  president?  (4.)  What  branches  compose  the  legis- 
lature? (6.)  What  persons  form  the  senate?  (6.)  How  are  senators  elected ! 
(7.)  How  is  the  house  of  deputies  constituted  ?  (8.)  Of  what  does  the  judi 
ciary  consist?     (9.)  What  military  organization  is  there? 

XVL — (1.)    How  is  Uraguay  governed  ? 


330  History  of  Govermnents. 

American  states.     (2.)  Equal  suffrage,  and  the  privilege  of  holding 
oflSce,  is  extended  to  foreigners  as  well  as  natives. 

XVII. — (1  )  The  state  of  Paraguay  is  called  a  republic,  but  its 
president  possesses  extraordinary  powers.  (2.)  He  is  elected  for 
life,  and  exercises  arbitrary  authority.  (3.)  The  state  is  divided 
into  departments,  called  partidos,  each  governed  by  a  commander, 
called  the  Comisionado.  (4.)  The  commanders  are  appointed  by 
the  president,  and  responsible  only  to  him. 

XVIII. — (1.)  Of  the  five  states  of  Central  America,  Costa  Rica 
enjoys  tlie  only  secure  government.  (2.)  This  republic  is  divided 
into  three  political  departments.  (3.)  Each  of  these  is  separated 
into  partidos.  (4.)  The  administration  is  intrusted  to  a  president, 
and  the  law-making  authority  vested  in  a  representative  legislature. 
(5.)  The  other  states — Guatemala,  San  Salvador,  Honduras,  and 
Nicaragua — pretend  to  republican  organization,  but  are  distracted 
by  partisan  chiefs,  who  oppose  each  other. 

XIX. — (1.)  The  republic  of  Mexico  is  a  combination  of  twenty- 
two  states,  five  territories,  and  a  federal  district  comprising  the 
capital  city.  (2.)  The  constitution  resembles,  in  its  provisions,  that 
of  the  American  repubh'c,  but  establishes  a  state  religion  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  form.  (3.)  The  government  is  divided,  as  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  into  legislative,  administrative,  and  judi- 
cial departments.  (4.)  There  is  no  provision  for  public  courts  or 
trial  by  jury.  (5.)  Of  late  years,  the  federal  government  has  been 
unsettled,  and  the  states  distracted  by  contests  of  ambitious  mili- 
tary chiefs. 

(2.)    What  are  the  popular  privileges? 

XVn. — (1.)  What  is  said  of  Paraguay  ?  (2.)  What  is  the  position  of  the  presi- 
dent?    (.3.)  How  is  the  state  divided  ?    (4.)   What  is  said  of  the  commanders? 

XVm.— (1.)  What  is  said  of  Costa  Rica?  (2.)  How  is  it  divided? 
(3.)  How  subdivided?  (4.)  What  is  the  form  of  government?  (5.)  What  is 
the  condition  of  other  Central  American  states  ? 

XIX. — (1.)  How  is  the  Mexican  republic  constituted?  (2.)  What  does  itj 
federal  constitution  resemble?  (3.)  How  is  supreme  authority  divided? 
(4.)  In  what  respects  does  the  Mexican  constitution  differ  from  that  of  the 
American  republic?  (5.)  What  has  been  the  condition  of  Mexico  during  lata 
years  ? 


'ruifi 


UNITED    STATES 


FEDERAL  REPUBLIC. 


GOYERNMENT   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

I._(l.)  Government  of  the  American  Republic  is  founded  on  a 
Union  entered  into  by  the  people  of  the  original  thirteen  States  and 
all  other  States  subsequently  admitted.  (2.)  Every  State  gives  up 
certain  powers  and  duties  belonging  to  itself,  to  be  exercised  and 
performed  by  representatives  of  all  the  States,  and  by  an  adminis- 
tration elected  by  all  the  people. 

II._(1.)  The  governmental  system  of  the  United  States  is  re- 
corded and  explained  in  a  collection  of  articles  and  obligations 
agreed  upon  by  all  the  people.  (2.)  In  this  written  instrument  of 
record  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  national  legislature  and  execu- 
tive are  deflued.  (3.)  By  the  provisions  therein  specified,  all  the 
States  and  their  citizens  are  goverued  as  a  single  uudivided  nation 
(4.)  This  written  instrument  is  called  the  "  Constitution  of  the 
United  States." 

L— (1.)  On  what  is  government  of  the  American  Republic  founded  ?  (2.) 
What  is  said  of  certain  powers  and  duties  ? 

n. (1.)  What  is  said  of  the  governmental  system  ?     (2.)  What  are  defined 

in  this  instrument?  (3.)  What  authority  does  it  possess'  (4.)  What  is  this 
written  instrument  called  ?  ^_ 


332  History  of  Governments. 

III. — (1.)  The  natiohal,  or  supreme  government  of  the  Union  is 
composed  of  a  first  magistrate,  '^^I'ed  President,  a  Vice-President, 
and  a  legislative  body  called  the  Congress.  (2.)  The  President  is 
assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  connsellors  appointed  by  himself  (3.)  The 
Congress  is  divided  into  two  branches,  called  a  Senate  and  a  House 
of  R'  presentativGS. 

IV". — (1.)  The  Senate  is  composed  of  persons  who  have  attained 
the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  citizens  during  ni':^e  years.  (2.) 
Senators  are  selected  by  the  legislatures  of  the  StaVs.  (3.)  A 
senator  represents  the  State  from  which  he  is  sent,  as  an  independ- 
ent commonwealth  and  sovereign  republic,  under  the  national  consti- 
tution. (4.)  Every  State  is  entitled  to  choose  two  senators,  to 
serve  for  six  years  each, 

v. — (1.)  The  House  of  Representatives  is  composed  of  persons 
twenty-five  years  old,  who  have  been  citizens  during  seven  years. 
(2.)  Representatives  must  be  citizens  of  the  State  from  which  they 
are  sent,  chosen  according  to  the  laws  of  that  State  regarding 
elections. 

VI. — (1.)  Senators  of  the  United  States  are  divided  into  three 
parts,  according  to  the  date  of  their  election.  (2.)  One-third  of  the 
number  vacate  their  seats  every  two  years.  (3.)  This  insures  an 
experienced  body  of  legislators  at  all  times. 

VII. — (1.)  Representatives  are  chosen  once  in  two  years.  (2.) 
The  legislative  power  of  a  single  congress  continues  for  that  length 
of  time.     (3.)  Representatives  are  voted  for  by  electors  of  the  dis- 

m. — (1.)  How  is  the  American  government  composed?  (2.)  How  is  the 
President  assisted'?      (3.)  How  is  Congress  divided  ? 

rV.— (1.)  How  is  the  Senatu  composed?  (2.)  How  are  senators  appointed? 
(3.)  What  does  a  senator  represent?  (4.)  How  many  senators  are  allowed  to 
each  American  State  ? 

V. — (1.)  How  is  the  House  of  Representatives  composed?  (2.)  What  quali- 
fications must  representatives  possess  ? 

VI.— (].)  How  are  senators  classified?  (2.)  What  senators  are  changed 
every  alternate  year?     (3.)  What  does  this  insure? 

Vn. — (1.)  When  are  representatives  chosen?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  congrea 
cional  powers?     (3.)  How  are  representatives  voted  for? 


Government  of  the  United  States.  3^33 

trict  which  they  represent  in  any  State.  (4.)  A  congressional  dis- 
trict is  fixed  by  hiw,  and  contains  nsually  about  one  hundred  thou- 
sand inhabitants. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  President  of  the  American  Republic  is  elected 
for  four  years.  (2.)  His  cabinet  council  consists  of  seven  officers  of 
stete,  each  changed  with  the  duties  of  a  particular  department  of  the 
government. 

IX. — (1.)  The  seven  officers  are  called  Secretary  of  State, 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of  War,  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  Postmaster-General,  and  Attorney- 
General.  (2.)  They  receive  their  appointment  from  the  President, 
and  if  approved  by  the  Senate,  become  executive  officers.  (3.)  They 
are  subject  to  removal  by  tlie  President,  without  consultation  of  the 
Senate. 

MANNER    OF    LEGISLATING    IN    CONGRESS. 

X. — (1.)  The  two  branches  of  Congress,  called  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives,  exercise  joint  legislative  authority.  (2.)  They 
examine  into  all  pubHc  business  over  which  the  Constitution  allows 
Congress  to  have  jurisdiction.  (3.)  The  manner  of  legislating  iu 
Congress  is  by  deliberation  in  committees,  and  by  a  vote  of  each 
house  upon  matters  brought  before  its  members  during  session. 

XI. — (1.)  Senators  meet  in  one  chamber  and  representatives  in 
another.  (2.)  The  House  of  Representatives  is  presided  over  by  an 
officer  called  the  Speaker,  chosen  from  its  members.  (3.)  Tlie 
Senate  is  presided  over  by  the  Vice-President  of  the  American 
Republic,  or  United  States,  in  right  of  his  office. 

(4.)  What  is  a  congressional  district  ? 

VIII. — (1.)  What  is  the  President's  term  of  office?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  his 
cabinet  council  ? 

IX. — (1.)  What  are  the  seven  cabinet  officers  called  ?  (2.)  How  are  they 
selected  ?     (3.)  What  authority  may  remove  them  ? 

X.— (1.)  What  authority  has  Congress  ?  (2.)  What  do  they  do  ?  (3.)  What 
is  the  mode  of  congressional  legislation  ? 

XI.— (1.)  Where  does  Congress  assemble?  (2.)  Who  presides  over  thfl 
representative  branch  ?     (3.)  Who  presides  over  the  Senate? 


334  History  of  Governments. 

XII. — (1.)  Every  proposition  for  the  passage  of  a  law  or  measure 
iutroduced  into  one  or  tlie  other  branch  of  Congress  is  called  either 
2>,  Bill  or  a  Resolution.  (2.)  When  a  bill  is  proposed,  it  must  be 
submitted  in  writing,  and  pass  through  certain  forms  of  scrutiny  and 
discussion  before  passage.  (3.)  If  a  bill  be  adopted  by  both  houses, 
it  must  receive  the  President's  signature  before  it  can  go  into  opera- 
tion as  an  Act  of  Congress.  (4.)  An  Act  of  Congress  remains  the 
law  of  the  land  until  it  is  modified  or  repealed  by  another  Act  of 
Congress. 

XIII. — (1.)  When  a  bill  is  passed  by  both  houses,  it  is  presented 
to  the  President  for  approval.  (2.)  If  he  objects  to  its  passage, 
he  returns  it  to  Congress  without  his  signature,  stating  his  reasons 
for  so  doing.  (3.)  This  act  is  termed  a  veto  of  the  bill,  from  a 
Latin  word  signifying  "I  forbid." 

XIV. — (1.)  If  the  President  fails  to  return  a  bill  in  ten  days 
after  its  presentation  to  him,  it  is  considered  to  be  approved,  and 
takes  effect  as  an  Act  of  Congress.  (2.)  If  it  be  returned  with  the 
President's  veto,  it  may  still  become  a  law,  provided  two-thirds  of 
each  house  agree  to  pass  it  without  the  President's  approval. 

XV. — (1.)  A  bill  may  be  introduced  in  either  of  the  two  houses, 
provided  it  is  not  to  raise  revenues  for  government.  (2.)  All  bills 
30  relating  to  money  must  first  be  presented  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. (3.)  A  bill  is  introduced  in  Congress  by  a  representative 
or  senator,  who  rises  in  his  seat  and  presents  it  to  the  speaker. 
(4.)  If  no  objection  be  made,  it  is  read  once  by  its  title,  and  then 


XII. — (1.)  What  is  meant  by  a  bill  or  resolution  ?  (2.)  What  is  done  with 
a  bill?  (3.)  AVhat  is  requisite  for  every  bill?  (4.)  What  is  said  of  an  Act  of 
Congress  ? 

XIII.— (1.)  What  is  done  with  a  bill  passed  by  both  houses?  (2.)  How 
does  the  President  negative  a  bill  ?  (3.)  What  is  the  act  of  returning  a  bill 
with  objections  called? 

XIV. — (1.)  When  is  a  bill  considered  to  be  passed?  (2.)  How  may  a  bill 
be  passed  in  opposition  to  the  President's  objections  ? 

XV.— (1.)  How  may  bills  be  brought  before  Congress?  (2.)  In  what  house 
must  bills  to  raise  money  originate  ?  (3.)  What  is  tie  manner  of  presenting  a 
bill?     (4.)  What  ib  done  with  a  bill  when  preserted  svithout  objection? 


Government  of  the  United  States.  333" 

referred  to  a  committee  of  members  having  cbarge  of  the  public 
business  to  which  it  pertains. 

XVI. — (1.)  When  a  bill  is  so  referred,  it  becomes  the  duty  of  a 
committee  having  charge  of  it  to  consider  it  carefully.  (2.)  If  it 
meets  their  approval,  it  is  their  province  to  recommend  li  to  the 
house  where  it  originated,  for  adoption  by  the  members,  (3.)  If 
the  committee  be  opposed  to  its  passage,  they  may  make  an  un- 
favorable report  upon  it.  (4.)  Their  report  may  then  be  accepted 
or  rejected  by  the  house  to  which  it  is  presented. 

XVII. — (1.)  If  a  bill  be  recommended  for  passage,  it  receives  a 
second  reading  by  its  title,  and  is  committed  to  a  committee  of  the 
whole  for  discussion.  (2.)  A  committee  of  the  whole  means  all 
members  of  either  house  who  deliberate  at  certain  times  on  the 
merits  of  bills. 

XVIII. — (1.)  If  a  bill  be  favorably  reported  from  committee  of 
the  whole,  it  is  ordered  to  be  engrossed  for  a  third  reading,  with 
such  alterations  or  amendments,  if  any,  as  have  been  made  in  com- 
mittee of  the  whole.  (2.)  After  a  third  reading,  a  vote  upon  it  is 
taken  by  yeas  and  nayo  of  all  members  present.  (3.)  If  a  majority 
of  all  the  members  of  one  house  vote  in  its  favor,  it  is  declared 
passed,  and  must  be  sent  to  the  other  house  of  Congress  for 
consideration. 

XIX. — (1.)  When  a  bill  is  laid  before  the  other  house,  it  is 
referred  to  committee  of  the  whole  in  that  house.  (2.)  If  favorably 
reported,  it  is  read  a  third  time  and  then  voted  upon.  (3  )  If  a 
majority  of  all  the  members  be  in  favor  of  it,  it  is  declared  to  be 
___ — ^ ^  - 

XVI (1.)  What  is  the  duJy  of  committees?     (2.)  What  should  a  committee 

do  witli  a  bill  if  it  be  approved  ?  (3.)  What  if  disapproved  ?  (4.)  What  action 
may  be  taken  on  a  committee's  report. 

XVII. — (1.)  What  is  done  with  a  bill  after  it  is  rccommendod  for  passage' 
(2.)  What  is  meant  by  a  cominilteo  of  the  whole  ? 

XVm. — (1.)  What  becomes  of  a  bill  when  it  is  aj)proved  in  committee  ol 
the  whole?  (2.)  What  is  done  when  a  bill  has  been  read  for  the  third  time  i' 
(3.)  What  number  of  votes  is  required  to  pass  a  bill  ? 

XIX. —  (1.)  What  is  done  with  a  bill  when  sent  for  consideration  to  tbs 
other  house?     (2.)  What  action  is  afterward  taken  ?     (3.)  W'.iat  is  necessary 


5^b  HIstor)    of  Governments 

passed,  and   transmitted  to  the   President  for  approval.     (4.)  I: 
amended  or  altered  before  passage,  it  must  be  returned  to    the 
liouse  in  which  it  originated      (5.)  If  that  house  agrees   to  the 
amendments  or  alterations,   it   will  become  an  Act   of   Congress, 
and,  when  signed  by  the  President,  a  law. 

POWERS    OF    CONGRESS. 

XX. (1.',   Each  house  of  Congress  possesses  power  to  decide 

whether  its  members  are  or  are  not  entitled  to  their  seats.  (2.) 
Each  may  compel  the  attendance  of  members  who  absent  them- 
selves without  sufficient  cause.  (3.)  Each  house  has  exclusive 
authority  over  its  own  members  for  any  offence  they  commit  as 
legislators. 

XXI. — (1.)  Congress  is  empowered  to  levy  and  collect  taxes, 
and  raise  money  by  other  means,  for  government  expenses.  (2.)  It 
makes  all  necessary  regulations  for  commercial  intercourse.  (3.)  It 
grants  the  privileges  of  citiaenship  to  foreigners,  under  such  restric- 
tions as  it  may  adopt. 

XXII.-^(1.)  Congress  alone  has  authority  to  coin  money,  and 
regulate  the  value  of  coined  money.  (2.)  It  passes  laws  to  fix  the 
standard  of  weights  and  measures  throughout  all  the  States.  (3.) 
It  makes  laws  to  punish  persons  who  counterfeit  the  national  money. 
(4.)  It  has  power  to  pass  laws  for  the  relief  of  debtors.  (5.)  It 
establishes  post-offices  and  post  roads,  and  authorizes  contracts  for 
carrying  the  mails.  (6.)  It  makes  laws  for  the  protection  and  re- 
ward of  authors  and  inventors,  who  produce  valuable  works. 

to  its  passage  or  adoption?  (4.)  What  must  be  done  with  the  bill  if  it  be 
amended  or  altered  ?     (5.)  What  is  then  necessary  to  its  passage  ? 

XX.— (1.)  What  peculiar  power  does  each  house  of  Congress  possess? 
(2.)  What  may  each  house  do  ?  (3.)  What  exclusive  authority  has  each 
house  ? 

XXL— (l.)  What  is  Congress  empowered  to  do?  (2.)  What  regulations 
does  it  make  ?     (3.)  What  privileges  does  it  grant  ? 

XXn (1  )  What  sole  authority  has  Congress?     (2.)  What  laws  does  it 

pass  ?  (3.)  What  penalties  does  it  establish  ?  (4.)  What  power  has  it  to  grant 
rehef?  (5.)  What  powers  has  it  regardmg  posts?  (6.)  What  protection  doea 
h  provide  for  certain  persons  ? 


Government  of  the  United  States.  337 

XXIII. — (1.)  Congress  provides  for  the  establishing  of  national 
courts  and  tribunals  under  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
(2.)  It  establishes  penalties  for  the  punishment  of  piracy  and  other 
offences  against  the  law  of  nations.  (3  )  It  has  power  to  declare 
war,  regulate  rules  and  methods  of  warfare,  and  raise  and  support 
armies.  (4.)  It  has  jurisdiction  over  the  land  and  sea  forces  of  the 
country,  and  can  call  out  the  militia  of  all  the  States,  in  case  of  ne- 
cessity. (5.)  It  claims  exclusive  government  over  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  over  all  naval  stations,  forts,  arsenals,  and  otlier 
works  or  territory  owned  by  the  United  States. 

XXrV. — (1.)  Congress  possesses  authority  to  dispose  of  puVjlic 
lands  and  territories  not  included  under  the  jurisdiction  of  any  State 
of  the  Union.  (2.)  It  makes  necessary  laws  and  regulations  for 
the  government  of  persons  residing  on  such  lands.  (3.)  It  has 
power  to  explain  the  offence  of  treason,  and  provide  penalties 
for  it. 

XXV.— (1.)  Congress  has  power  to  admit  new  States  into  the 
confederacy,  when  such  States  are  formed  out  of  the  public  territory 
owned  by  the  United  States.  (2.)  It  may  regulate,  by  law,  the 
times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  representatives, 
and  the  time  and  manner  of  electing  senators. 

XXVI. —  (1.)  AH  laws,  orders,  and  resolutions,  necessary  in  ex- 
ercising the  authority  of  Congress,  must  pass  under  the  rules  of 
both  houses.  (2.)  They  must  be  agreed  to  by  at  least  a  majority 
of  the  members  of  both.  (3.)  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote 
(except  a  vote  of  adjournment),  on  which  both  houses  act,  is  re- 


XXHL— (1.)  What  judicial  institutions  does  Congress  provide?  (2.)  Wliat 
penalties  does  it  establish?  (3.)  What  military  authority  does  it  possess? 
(4.)  What  military  jurisdiction  does  it  exercise?  (5.)  What  exclusive  gov- 
ernment does  it  cl:um  ? 

XXIV. —  (1.)  Wiiat  power  has  Congress  over  the  soil?  (2.)  What  laws  doea 
it  establish  over  territories  ?     (3.)  What  offence  may  it  define  and  punish  ? 

XXV. — (1.)  What  power  has  Congress  to  enlarge  the  confederation?  (2.) 
What  elections  may  it  regulate  ? 

XXVI.— (1.)  How  n.ust  all  legislation  be  conducted?  (2.)  What  is  necos- 
sarv  to  the  passage  of  Congressional  laws?  (3.)  What  is  necessary  to  the 
legality  of  all  actioij  taken  by  both  houses  of  Congress  ? 


^8  History  of  Governments. 

quired  to  be  submitted  to  the  President  of  the  United  States  before 
it  can  take  effect. 

POWERS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    SENATE. 

XXVII.— (1.)  The  Senate  has  power  to  judge  of  the  rights  and 
qualifications  of  its  own  members.  (2.)  It  exercises  exclusive 
jurisdiction  over  their  conduct  as  legislators.  (3.)  It  chooses  an 
officer  to  preside  over  its  deliberations,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States,  who  is  the  regular  officer.  (4.)  It 
appoints  all  other  officers  and  clerks  and  committees  necessary  to 
the  transaction  of  its  affairs. 

XXVIII. — (1.)  The  Senate  has  sole  power  of  trying  all  cases 
of  impeachment.  (2.)  Impeachment  is  a  charge  brought  against 
the  President,  Vice-President,  or  any  civil  officer  of  the  United  States, 
for  treason,  bribery,  or  any  other  high  offence.  (3.)  Impeachment 
must  be  presented  by  tlie  House  of  Representatives  before  beinj^ 
tried  by  the  Senate. 

POWERS    OF    THE    HOUSE    OF    REPRESENTATIVES. 

XXIX. — (1.)  The  House  of  Representatives  possesses  the  same 
jurisdiction  and  authority  over  its  own  members  as  is  possessed  by 
the  Senate  over  members  of  that  body.  (2.)  It  elects  a  speaker  to 
preside  over  its  deliberations  during  the  term  for  which  each  con- 
gress is  chosen. 

XXX. — (I.)  The  House  elects  officers  and  clerks  to  perform 
various  duties  connected  with  its  legislation.  (2.)  It  possesses 
power,  like  the  Senate,  to  appoint  committees  of  investigation  from 

XXVn. — (1.)  What  particular  power  has  the  Senate  ?     (2.)  What  exclusive 

jurisdiction  does  it  exercise?  (3.)  What  chief  officer  does  it  choose?  (4.) 
What  other  officials  does  it  appoint? 

XXVm. — (1.)  What  sole  power  has  the  Senate  ?  (2.)  What  is  meant  by 
impeachment  ?     (3.)  In  what  house  must  impeachment  be  made  ? 

XXIX. — (1.)  What  particular  authority  is  possessed  by  the  House  of  Repre- 
seutatives  ?     (2.)  What  chief  officer  does  it  elect? 

XXX.— (1.)  What  other  officials  does  the  House  elect?  (2.)  What  powc 
does  it  possess  to  appoint  committees? 


Government  of  the  United  States.         339 

its  mem'bers,  and  to  give  such  committees   authority  .to    sum- 
mon witnesses  and  administer  oaths. 

XXXI. — (1.)  The  House  has  sole  authority  to  place  high 
officials  of  civil  administration  under  impeachment.  (2.)  The 
House  acts  as  an  accuser  of  the  party  charged  with  offence, 
while  the  Senate  is  the  tribunal  to  decide  upon  the  charge. 
(3.)  Two-thirds  of  the  representatives  must  vote  for  an  im- 
peachment before  it  can  be  presented  to  the  Senate  for  action. 

XXXII.— (1.)  The  House  has  sole  authority  to  bring 
forward  measures  for  the  purpose  of  raising  a  revenue  to  pay 
government  expenses. 

MEMBERS  OF  C0NGBE39. 

XXXIII.— (1.)  In  all  cases  except  treason,  felony,  and 
breach  of  the  peace,  members  of  Congress  are  privileged  from 
arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session,  and  in  going  to 
or  returning  to  the  same.  (2.)  No  senator  or  representative 
can  be  called  to  account  elsewhere,  for  any  speech  or  remark 
that  he  makes  during  debate  as  a  legislator. 

XXXIV.— (1.)  Senators  and  representatives  of  Congress 
now  receive,  as  compensation,  a  fixed  yearly  salary,  in  lieu  of 
former  additions  to  their  per  diem  pay.  (2.)  Their  privilege  of 
using  the  United  States  mails,  free  of  charge,  is  restricted. 

XXXV.— Every  senator  or  representative  is  entitled  to  re- 
ceive, in  addition  to  his  salary,  a  certain  sum,  per  mile,  for  the 


XXXI.— (1)  Wliat  sole  power  does  the  House  possess  ?  (1.)  Wliat  Is  said  of  Im- 
peachment ?    (3.)  What  is  required  for  the  presenting  of  impeachments  ? 

XXXII.— (1  )  What  sole  authority  is  excorcised  by  the  House  of  Kepresenta- 
tives  ? 

XXXIII.— (1.)  What  privileges  have  members  of  Congress  ?  (2.)  How  are  th/-y 
protected  ? 

XXXIV.— (1-)  What  comjiensatlou  Is  made  to  every  member  of  Congress  ?  (2.) 
Wh;u  iprivilege  is  restricted  ? 

XXXV.— (1.)  What  addUlous  to  salary  do  members  of  Congress  receive  ? 


340  History  of  Governments. 

distance  which  he  travels  at  each  session,  in  going  and  returning 
between  his  residence  and  the  capital,  or  seat  of  government. 

XXXVI. — (1  '  Each  house  of  Congress  possesses  the  privilege 
of  ordering  books,  documents,  and  other  printed  matter  and  sta- 
tionery, for  tlie  use  of  every  member.  (2.)  Most  of  the  books 
printed  by  order  of  Congress  are  intended  for  distribution  to  libra- 
ries, and  literary  or  scientific  associations,  through  members  of  Con- 
gress, to  whom  they  are  assigned. 


RESTRICTIONS    OF    MEMBERS    OF    CONGRESS. 

XXXVTI. — (1.)  No  senator  or  representative  can  hold  any 
other  civil  office,  either  elective  or  appointed,  while  he  continues  to 
be  a  member  of  Congress.  (2.)  He  cannot  be  appointed  to  any 
civil  office  under  tbe  national  government  during  the  term  for  which 
he  was  elected,  if  such  office  be  created,  or  its  emoluments  increased, 
during  that  terra. 

XXXVIII. — (1.)  Senators  and  representatives,  and  all  other 
officers  of  the  United  States  government,  are  forbidden  to  accept 
any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from 
any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  state,  without  special  consent  of 
Congress. 

POWERS    OF   THE    PRESIDENT. 

XXXIX. — (1.)  The  President  of  the  United  States  is  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  and  navy,  and  of  the  militia  of  all  the 
States,  when  the  latter  are  in  actual  service.  (2.)  He  may  require 
a  written  opinion  from  tbe  head  of  each  department  under  govern- 
ment, upon  any  matter  embraced  in  the  duties  of  such  department. 

XXxVi. — (1.)  What  privilege  does  each  house  posses.**  (2.)  What  distri- 
bution is  intended  to  be  made  ? 

XXXVII. — (1.)  How  is  a  member  of  Congress  restricted  as  to  holding  office  ? 
^2.)  What  appointments  is  he  prevented  from  receiving? 

XXXVin.— (1.)  What  is  forbidden  to  United  States  officials? 

XXXIX. — ^1.)  What  military  command  has  the  President?     (2.)  What  maj 


Government  of  the  United  States.  341 

(3.)  He  has  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for  offences  com- 
mitted against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

XL. — (1.)  The  President  has  power  to  make  all  treaties,  with 
consent  of  two-thirds  of  the  Senate,  at  any  of  its  sessions.  (2.)  He 
appoints  ambassadors,  agents  and  officers,  under  the  uationnl 
government,  whose  appointment  is  not  otherwise  provided  for  by 
law. 

XLI. — (1.)  The  President  has  power  to  call  Congress  to  assem- 
ble on  occasions  when  he  deems  it  necessary.  (2.)  When  a  dis- 
agreement takes  place  between  the  two  houses  in  reference  to 
adjournmeur,  the  President  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he 
thinks  proper. 

XIjII. — (1.)  The  President  possesses  power  to  prevent  the 
enactment  of  any  measure  by  Congress,  unless  two-thirds  of  the 
members  of  both  houses  vote  in  its  favor. 

feLECTION    OF    PRESIDENT    AXD    VICE-PRESIDENT. 

XLiIII. — (1.)  In  order  to  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President,  a 
person  must  have  been  born  in  the  United  States.  (2.)  He  must 
have  resided  in  the  country  at  least  fourteen  years,  and  must  be 
thirty-five  years  of  age  when  elected. 

XLIV. — ^(1.)  In  order  to  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  Vice- 
President,  a  person  must  possess  the  same  qualifications  as  for  that 
of  President.  (2.)  The  two  officers  are  elected  at  the  same  time 
and  for  the  same  term. 

he  require  from  heads  of  departments?  (:i.)  What  judicial  power  does  he 
po.ssess  ? 

XL — (1.)  What  atithority  makes  treaties  ?  (2.)  What  appointments  does 
the  President  make  ? 

XLI.— (1.)  What  power  has  the  President  to  assemble  the  Congre.ss  ?  (2.) 
What  adjourning  power  has  he? 

XLIL — (1.)   What  power  has  the  President  over  congressional  action? 

XLIII.— (1.)  What  is  the  fir.st  qualification  for  presidential  ollice  ?  (2.)  What 
Other  qualifications  are  necessary  ? 

XLIV. — (1.)  What  qualifications  must  the  Vice-President  possess?  (2.)  How 
are  both  officers  chosen  ? 


342  History  of  Governments. 

XL  v. — (1.)  The  Vice-President  is  presiding  officer  of  the 
Senate.  (2.)  If  the  office  of  President  be  vacated  during  a  presi- 
dential term,  the  Vice-President  becomes  acting  President,  or  chief 
magistrate.  (3.). He  then  resigns  his  place  as  presiding  officer  of 
tlie  Senate  to  some  senator  elected  by  that  body. 

XLVI. — (1.)  If  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice-President  be 
both  vacated  during  a  presidential  term,  the  powers  and  duties  of 
chief  magistrate  devolve  upon  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives. 

XLVIL— (1.)  The  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States  are  chosen,  once  in  four  years,  by  votes  of  electors  delegated 
by  the  people  of  States  in  their  respective  districts. 

XLVIII. — (1.)  The  people  do  not  vote  directly  for  the  names 
of  President  or  Vice-President  on  a  ticket  or  ballot.  (2.)  The  voters 
of  each  State  choose  a  number  of  officers,  called  electors,  to  represent 
them  in  an  assembly  denominated  an  electoral  college.  (3.)  The 
electoral  college  of  each  State  meets  at  its  State  capital  immedi- 
ately after  a  presidential  election. 

XIjIX. — (1.)  The  number  of  electors  chosen  by  each  Stable  is 
just  equal  to  the  number  of  senators  and  representatives  to  which 
such  State  is  entitled  in  the  national  Congress.  (2.)  A  list  of  the 
names  of  candidates  for  electors  is  printed  on  a  single,  ballot.  (3.) 
The  whole  list  together  is  voted  for  by  all  the  voters  of  a  State. 
(4.)  There  may  be  as  many  lists  as  there  are  parties  voting  in  the 
State. 

XLV — (1.)  What  position  does  the  Vice-President  hold  ?  (2.)  What  office 
may  he  fill  ?     (.3.)  What  does  he  do  when  called  upon  to  act  as  President  ? 

XliVI. — (1.)  What  officer  becomes  acting  President  in  case  both  elected 
officers  are  removed? 

XliVIL— (1.)  When  are  President  and  Vice-President  elected? 

XLVIII.— (1.)  What  is  said  respecting  the  votes  for  President  and  Vice- 
President?  (2.)  AVhat  do  the  voters  of  each  State  do?  (3.)  When  do  the 
electoral  colleges  meet? 

XLIX.— (1.)  What  number  of  electors  is  chosen  by  each  State?  (2.)  What 
is  printed  on  a  single  ballot  ?  (3.)  How  are  the  electors  voted  for  ?  (4.)  How 
many  lists  may  there  be  ? 


Government  of  the  United  States,  343 

L, — (1.)  The  persons  named  upon  the  list  of  candidates  which 
receives  the  o:rcatest  number  of  votes  in  a  State  are  declared  elec- 
tor? for  President  and  Vice-President.  (2.)  They  are  supposed  to 
represent  the  popular  vote  of  the  State.  (3.)  No  United  States 
senator  or  representative,  and  no  person  holding  office  under  the 
national  government,  is  eligible  to  be  chosen  an  elector. 

LI. — (1.)  When  electors  of  a  State  are  chosen  in  this  manner, 
they  proceed  to  meet  and  cast  their  own  votes.  (2.)  Each  elector 
votes  for  a  President,  and  for  a  Vice-President.  (3.)  One  of  the 
persons  for  whom  he  votes  must  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  State 
whiclj  the  electors  represent.  (4.)  Each  elector  names  on  one  ballot 
the  person  he  wishes  to  be  President,  and  on  another  the  person  he 
wishes  to  be  Vice-President.  (5.)  A  list  is  then  made  of  all  persons 
voted  for  by  the  college,  with  the  number  of  votes  for  each.  (6.) 
The  electors  sign,  certify,  and  seal  such  list,  and  send  it  to  the 
federal  capital,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  Senate. 

lill. — (1.)  When  the  president  of  the  Senate  has  received  a 
sealed  list  from  the  electoral  college  of  every  State,  he  opens  all  of 
them  in  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 
(2.)  The  number  of  votes  recorded  in  each  list  is  ascertained,  and 
the  entire  number  counted. 

LIII. — (1.)  The  candidate  for  President,  whose  name  appears  on 
a  majority  of  electoral  ballots,  is  declared  President.  (2.)  The  can- 
didate for  Vice-President,  whose  name  appears  in  like  manner  on  a 
majority  of  electoral  ballots,  is  declared  Vice-President. 

L. — (1.)  What  persons  become  electors  for  President  and  Vice-President 
(2.)  What  are  these  persons  supposed    to  represent?     (3.)  What  citizens  are 
restricted  from  being  cliosen  electors  ? 

LI.— (I.)  What  do  electors  do  when  chosen?  (2.)  What  does  each  elector 
do?  (3.)  What  must  one  of  his  candidates  not  he?  (4.)  What  does  each 
elector  name  on  his  balbts  ?  (5.)  What  list  is  then  made  ?  (6.)  What  is  done 
witii  such  list  ? 

LII. — (1.)  What  does  the  president  oi  the  Senate  do?  (2.)  What  action  is 
then  taken  ? 

IjIII. — (1.)  What  person  is  declared  President?  (2.)  What  person  is  de 
dared  Vice-President  ? 


24^  History  of  Governments. 

LIV. — (1.)  If  no  candidate  for  President  appear  to  have  received 
a  majority  of  electoral  votes,  three'  persons,  whose  names  were  on 
the  highest  number  of  ballots,  are  placed  as  candidates  before  the 
House  of  Representatives.  (2.)  The  members  of  that  House  then 
proceed  to  ballot  till  one  of  the  three  names  receives  the  votes  of  a 
majority  of  the  States  represented,  or  until  March  4th  next  ensuing. 

LV. — (I.)  In  this  ballotting,  each  State  is  allowed  but  one  vote, 
which  is  cast  by  a  majority  of  its  representatives  present,  (2.)  If 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  fail  to  make  its  choice  before 
March  4,  then  the  Vice-President  will  act  as  President,  according  to 
the  provision  made  in  case  of  death  or  disability  of  the  President. 

LVI.— (1.)  The  Vice-President  is  chosen  by  the  members  of  the 
Senate,  instead  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  (2  )  Out  of  two 
persons  whose  names  were  on  the  highest  number  of  electoral  ballots 
for  Vice-President,  the  Senate  chooses  one  to  be  tlie  Vice-President, 
and  to  acfas  President  in  case  of  no  choice  of  a  President,  as  above. 

JUDICIARY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

LVII. (1.)  The  federal  judiciary  consists  of  a  supreme  court, 

circuit  courts,  and  district  courts.  (2  )  The  supreme  court  is  com- 
posed of  a  chief-justice  and  eight  associate  judges,  appointed  to 
hold  office  during  good  behavior.  (3.)  The  judges  of  the  supreme 
court  are  also  circuit  judges.  (4.)  The  full  supreme  court  holds  one 
session  a  year  at  the  national  capital,  for  the  review  of  cases  on 
appeal,  and  the  settlement  of  constitutional  questions.  (5.)  A  cir- 
cuit court,  held  twice  a  year  in  every  State,  is  composed  of  one 
supreme  court  judge  and  one  district  judge  of  the  State  or  district 
wherein  the  court  sits.     (6.)  The  district  courts  are  held  in  {i-\ed 


LIV.— (1.)  What  takes  place  if  no  person  has  been  elected  by  the  colleges? 
(2  )   What  do  the  representatives  do  ? 

LV.— (1.)  How  many  votes  has  each  State  ?  (2.)  What  follows  in  case  of 
no  choice  by  the  House  of  Representatives  ? 

LVI.— (1.)  Which  House  chooses  the  Vice-President?  (2)  How  is  he 
chosen  by  the  House  of  Representatives  ? 

LVII.— (1.)  Of  what  does  the  federal  judiciary  consist  ?  (2.)  How  is  the 
supreme  court  composed  ?  (3.)  Who  are  the  circuit  judges  ?  (4.)  What  session 
does  the  full  supreme  court  hold  ?     (5.)  What  comprises  a  circuit  court  ?     (IJ.) 


Government  of  the  United  States.  345 

districts  comprising  a  State,  or  portion  of  a  State,  by  a  judge  ap- 
pointed specially  for  the  district.  (1)  In  some  cases,  a  single  dis- 
trict judge  has  two  or  more  districts  under  his  charge,  (8.)  There 
are  a  district  attorney  and  a  marshal  appointed  in  each  district. 
(9.)  The  first  acts  as  a  federal  prosecuting  officer,  and  the  second 
acts  as  a  federal  sherift'.  (10.)  All  constitutional  points  and  offences 
against  United  States  law,  not  controlled  by  State  jurisdiction,  are 
tried  in  the  federal  courts. 

DEPARTMENTS    OF    GOVERNMENT, 

LVIII. — (1.)  The  chief  officer  of  the  cabinet  is  called  Secretary 
of  State.  (2.)  He  is  head  of  the  diplomatic  department,  communi- 
cating witli  foreign  governments,  American  agents  residing  abroad, 
and  agents  of  foreign  powers  resident  in  this  country. 

LIX. — (1.)  The  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is  head  of  a  depart- 
ment of  public  finance.  (2.)  He  examines  into  all  accounts  for  and 
against  the  national  government.  (3,)  He  has  charge  of  public 
moneys,  and  is  accountable  for  their  safe  keeping  and  proper  dis- 
bursement. (4.)  He  supervises  the  mercantile  marine  and  com- 
mercial interests  of  the  country,  custom  houses,  duties  and  imposts. 

LX. — (1.)  The  Secretary  of  War  has  charge  of  national  military 
matters,  defence  of  the  country,  and  organization  of  governnjenl 
forces.  (2,)  The  standing  army  of  the  United  States  consists  of 
ten  thousand  men,  distributed  among  various  military  stations 
located  in  States  aud  territories.  (3.)  This  regular  force  is  main- 
tained as  a  nucleus  of  such  armies  as  might  be  called  for  in  case  of 
war.  (4.)  A  national  academy  for  instruction  iu  military  science  is 
supported  by  the  federal  government. 

What  is  said  of  the  district  courts?  (7)  What  is  sometimes  the  case? 
(8.)  What  legal  officers  are  appointed  from  each  district?  (9.)  In  what  capa- 
city do  these  officials  act?     (lo.)  What  jurisdiction  have  the  federal  courts? 

LVm. — (1.)  What  is  the  chief  cabinet  officer  called  ?  (2.)  Of  what  depart 
merit  is  he  the  head  ? 

LIX. — (1.)  What  is  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury?  (2.)  What  does  he 
examine?  (3.)  Of  what  has  he  charge?  (4.)  What  supervision  docs  he 
exercise  ? 

LX.— (1.)  What  is  the  Secretary  of  War?  (2.)  Wliat  is  the  United  States 
Btanding  army  ?  (3.)  Why  is  this  regular  force  maintained  ?  (-4.)  What  mili- 
tary institution  is  supported  by  government  ? 


34C  History  of  Governments. 

LXI. — ,'1.)  The  Secretary  o*"  the  Navy  is  head  of  all  naval  af- 
fairs connected  with  the  federal  government,  (2.)  The  United 
States  maintains  a  navy,  composed  of  armed  vessels,  for  the  pro- 
tection of  trade  upon  the  seas.  (3.)  Dock-yards  and  other  naval 
stations  are  under  superintendence  of  the  navy  department. 

LXII. — (1.)  The  Postmaster-General  is  head  of  the  mail  and 
postal  service  of  the  United  States.  (2.)  The  federal  government, 
through  congressional  action,  establishes  post-roads,  and  provides 
for  carrying  letters,  newspapers,  and  other  mail  matter,  throughout 
the  States.  (3.)  All  post-offices  are  under  control  of  this  depart- 
ment. (4.)  Its  contracts  for  transporting  the  mails  are  usually 
made  witli  private  express  companies  or  agents. 

IjXIII. — (1.)  The  Secretary  of  the  Interior  is  head  of  a  depart- 
ment which  has  charge  of  public  lands  and  mines,  Indian  affairs, 
pensions,  patents,  and  public  buildings.  (2.)  This  department  is 
usually  called  the  Home  Department. 

LXIV. — (1.)  The  Attorney-General  is  prosecutor  or  advocate  in 
all  suits  for  or  against  the  United  States  government  in  the  Supreme 
Court.     (2.)  lie  is  chief  law  adviser  of  the  administration. 

LXV. — (1.)  Business,  necessary  or  incidental  to  various  depart- 
ments, is  transacted  by  clerks,  deputies,  commissioners  and  other 
officials,  and  by  contractors  or  other  agents.  (2.)  The  more  subordi- 
nate appointments  are  generally  made  by  heads  of  departments.  (3.) 
Higher  offices  are  filled  by  nomination  of  the  President  and  approval 
of  the  Senate. 


LXL— (1.)  What  is  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy?  (2.)  What  is  said  of  the 
U.  S.  navy?     (3.)  What  superintendence  has  this  department? 

LXII. — (1.)  What  is  the  Postmaster  General?  (2.)  What  does  the  federal 
government  do?  (3.)  What  control  has  the  post-office  department?  (4.)  What 
is  said  of  its  contracts  ? 

liXIIL— (1.)  What  is  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior?  (2.)  What  is  this  de- 
partment called  ? 

LXIV. — [I.)  Wliat  is  the  Attorney- General?  (2.)  What  is  his  position  in 
the  cabinet  ? 

LXV.— (1.)  How  is  business  appertaining  to  government  transacted?  (2.) 
How  are  the  lower  officials  appointed?     (3.)  How  are  higher  offices  filled? 


rCPULAR   GOVERNMOT 


CHAPTER  I. 

CHARTER     GRANTS. 

I. — (1.)  In  early  ages  nations  and  tribes  were  governed  by 
two  kinds  of  law.  (2.)  One  consisted  of  orders  proceediug  from 
a  king  or  oilier  ruler,  according  to  his  will  and  power.  (3.)  The 
other  was  embraced  in,^  customs  of  the  people.  (4.)  In  some 
nations  the  king's  power  was  restricted  by  religious  customs 
or  traditional  laws. 

II. — (1.)  The  custom  of  securing  ownership  in  land  or  other 
proj^erty  was  a  very  ancient  one.  (2.)  Abraham  bought  a  plot 
of  ground  for  burial  purposes,  paying  for  it  in  presence  of  wit- 
nesses. (2.)  Security  was  sometimes  given  by  a  solemn  oath 
between  the  parties.  (4.)  When  wi'itten  language  came  into 
use,  the  title  to  property  was  usually  secured  by  writings  in- 
scribed on  landmarks,  or  on  metal  and  other  material.  (5.)  Such 
writings  were  respected  as  agi-eements  between  men, 

III. — (1.)  Laws,  edicts,  and  grants  of  privilege  or  property 
were  signed  and  sealed.  (2.)  Mutual  agreements  so  made  were 
termed  covenants,  and  regarded  as  sacred  obligations.  (3.)  A 
ruler  made  grants  of  certain  lands  or  privileges  to  his  chief 
men  and  their  families,  or  to  his  soldiers  and  other  followers. 
(4.)  When  such  grants  were  made  under  seal  and  signature,  or 
witnessed  with  an  oath,  they  were  considered  to  be  seciu'ed  to 
those  receiving  them.  (5.)  In  this  way  some  rights  and  liber- 
ties were  pledged  to  the  subjects  of  a  king  or  other  ruler. 

847 


^48  History   of  Governments. 

IV. — (1.)  In  ancient  Egypt  tLe  laws  were  inscribed  on  stone 
monuments.  (2.)  In  Greece  and  Rome  they  were  engraved  on 
metal  tablets.  (3.)  We  read  of  the  Ten  Commandments  being 
carved  on  tablets  of  stone.  (4.)  Sach  laws  and  proclamations 
were  sometimes  affixed  to  the  gates  of  the  temples  or  public 
highways. 

v. — When  paper  material  came  into  use,  covenants,  laws 
and  grants  of  privileges  were  written  upon  it.  (2.)  The  term 
charter  was  employed  to  designate  such  writings ;  from  a  Greek 
word  clmrtos  signifying  ;paper. 

VI.— (1.)  When  tribes  and  nations  yielded  their  rights  as 
men  to  kings  and  other  chief  men,  all  authority  was  claimed 
by  government.  (2.)  Every  right  or  privilege  was  then  held 
simply  as  a  gift  or  grant  bestowed  by  the  ruling  power.  (3.)  In 
some  tribes  the  people  reserved  certain  privileges  to  their  own 
control.  (4  )  In  other  tribes  a  priesthood,  or  the  soldier  force, 
reserved  special  authority  in  matters  pertaining  to  their  own 
class.  (5.)  The  right  to  choose  their  own  military  leaders  or 
other  chiefs  was  exercised  by  some  tribes.  (6.)  This  right  was 
the  origin  of  citizenship,  and  was  always  restricted  to  free  born 
men,  or  men  made  free. 

VII.— (1.)  Classes  of  people  often  combined  to  claim 
privileges  and  rights  from  government.  (3.)  Such  privi- 
leges and  rights,  when  conceded,  were  usually  secured  under 
written  laws  or  charters.  (3.)  The  exercise  of  chartered  rights 
constituted  popular  liberty  in  Greece  and  Home. 

VIII.— (1.)  The  first  national  charter  on  record  was  a 
Hebrew  code  of  laws.  (2.)  Collections  of  royal  edicts  and 
proclamations  constituted  a  written  code  of  law  in  Assyria  and 
Persia.  (3.)  In  Greece  and  Rome  codes  of  law  were  written 
in  books  and  consulted  by  judges  and  lawyers.  (4.)  These  laws 
constituted  written  guarantees  of  popular  liberty.  (5.)  They 
enumerated  rights  and  privileges  of  citizens  which  no  ruler  waa 
permitted  to  set  aside. 


Charter  Grants.  349 

IX. — {!.)  In  tlie  middle  ages,  feudal  laws  contained  pro- 
visions for  military  service,  manual  labor,  land  holding  and 
taxations,  (2.)  Military  chiefs  held  lands  by  tenure  granted 
under  royal  seal.  (3.)  Laborers  on  such  lands  were  obliged 
to  yield  a  portion  of  all  products  to  their  landlord,  and  to  serve 
him  in  war  or  peace.  (4.)  Titles  of  nobility  were  conferred  by 
kings  and  other  superiors,  as  charter  rights.  (5.)  Landhold- 
ing  and  titles  of  rank  created  superior  classes.  (6.)  These 
superior  classes  restricted  the  power  of  governments,  while 
keeping  the  inferior  classes  in  subjection. 

X. — (1.)  In  England  a  charter  was  extorted  from  King 
John,  by  his  chief  barons  in  arms,  supported  by  their  tenantry. 
(2.)  This  charter  secured  large  privileges  to  the  land-holding 
class,  and  enumerated  certain  rights  and  privileges  claimed  by 
the  people  at  large.  (3.)  It  was  called  Magna  Charta,  and  the 
present  British  constitution  embodies  some  of  its  original  pro- 
visions. 

XI» — (1.)  When  British  colonies  were  planted  in  North 
America,  the  settlers  were  secured  by  charters  in  various  privi- 
leges and  rights,  granted  to  chiefs  of  colonizing  companies. 
(2.)  These  charters  were  written  documents  called  patents  under 
royal  seal  and  signature. 

XII« — (1.)  After  the  revolutionary  war  in  1776,  the  peo- 
ple of  thirteen  British  colonies  combined  to  frame  a  national 
constitution,  uniting  thirteen  states,  each  governed  by  a  state 
constitution  or  charter.  (2.)  The  government  of  the  United 
States  was  substituted  for  the  British  government,  and  the 
state  constitutions  took  the  place  of  royal  charters  or  patents. 

XIII.  (1.)  Under  the  constitution  of  the  United  States, 
all  the  people  of  states  are  united  as  a  nation.  (2.)  It  is  required 
that  each  state  constitution  shall  conform  to  the  national  con- 
stitution. 

XIV.  (1.)  In  the  foundation  of  a  new  state,  within  the 
United  States,  the  people  of  a  territory  first  convene  a  body 
of  delegates,   to   adopt   a   state  constitution.     (2.)  This  con- 


J50  History  of  Governments. 

stitution  is  then  presented  to  the  congress  of  the  TJnited 
States,  and  under  its  provisions  the  territory  is  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  State. 

XV«  (1.)  The  people  of  a  state  elect  representatives  to  meet 
as  a  state  legislature.  (2.)  A  state  legislature  enacts  la^vs  to 
be  binding  on  every  citizen.  (3.)  It  may  grant  rights  and 
privileges  to  individuals  and  corporations.  (4.)  A  corporation 
may  consist  of  any  number  of  persons  transacting  business  un- 
der a  charter.  (5.)  The  charter  they  receive  is  their  security 
in  transacting  business.  (6.)  Charters  are  considered  to  be 
vested  rights  during  the  time  for  which  they  are  granted. 

XVI. — (1.)  A  vested  right  is  a  right  or  privilege  which 
cannot  be  withdrawn  through  any  contingency  not  specified. 
(2.)  Rights  secured  by  charters  are  called  franchises  or  free- 
doms. (3.)  They  may  be  granted  for  a  term  of  years,  or  without 
limit.  (4.)  Charters  are  the  guarantees  of  persons  associated 
in  companies  for  any  business  purpose.  (5.)  Banting,  Insur- 
ance, Manufactures,  and  various  pursuits,  are  conducted  by 
corporations  under  charter  grants. 

XVII.— (1.)  The  people  of  a -village,  town,  county,  or  city 
may  be  authorized  to  transact  public  business  as  a  corporation. 
(2.)  Their  rights  and  privileges  are  set  forth  in  a  charter  grant- 
ed by  the  state  legislature,  according  to  law.  (3.)  A  legislative 
charter-grant  is  their  security  in  conducting  business,  and 
during  its  term  of  operation  it  secures  popular  rights. 

XVIII. — (1.)  Cities,  towns  and  villages  may  receive  char- 
ters from  the  legislature  as  bodies  corporate,  to  transact  public 
business,  (2.)  Such  charters,  however,  do  not  confer  vested 
rights,  such  as  corporations  secure  for  private  business. 
(3. )  They  constitute  codes  of  laws  or  regulations ;  but  are  sub- 
ject to  repeal  or  modification  by  the  legislature,  unless  their 
provisions  be  permanently  enforced  by  statute  or  constitution. 


CHAPTER  II. 

NATIONALITIES. 

I. — (1.)  Manlrind  has  been  classified  in  five  varieties,  the 
Caucasian,  the  Mongolian,  the  Ethiopian,  the  Malay,  and  the 
American.  (2.)  The  Caucasian  variety  is  white,  the  Mongolian 
yellow,  the  Ethiopian  blacir,  the  Malay  brown,  the  American 
red,  in  color  of  shin.  (3.)  These  five  varieties  are  subdivided 
into  nationalities.  (4.)  A  nationality  consists  of  one  or  more 
tribes. 

II. — (1.)  A  nationality  is  a  union  of  people  who  dwell  in 
neighborhood,  or  who  are  united  by  relations  of  kindred,  or 
by  other  recognized  connections.  (2.)  The  ancient  Hebrew 
nationality  embraced  Twelve  Tribes  descended  from  one  family, 
(3.)  Modern  Hebrew  people  are  merged  in  other  nationalities, 
but  recognize  relations  of  kindred  wherever  they  dwell. 

III. — (1.)  Nationality  may  be  defined  as  a  union  of  people 
by  mutual  consent  and  attachment  to  their  country  and  its 
customs.  (2.)  Nationalities  cannot  be  established  by  political 
authority  or  subjection.  (3.)  Tribes  and  communities  mav  be 
forced  to  obey  a  national  government,  but  subjection  does  not 
always  nationalize  them.  (4.)  Mutual  acquaintance  and  com- 
mon interests  must  unite  them  into  nationality,  and  centuries 
of  union  are  required  to  form  such  nationalities. 

IV. — (1.)  British  nationality  is  a  union  of  several  parts  of 
nationalities  formerly  in  opposition.  (2.)  The  Welsh  people 
are  descendants  of  original  natives  of  England.  (3.)  The  Irislt 
once  formed  several  distinct  nations  on  their  own  island. 
(4.)  The  ancient  Scotch  people  dwelt  distinct  in  tribal  families. 

V. — (1.)  French  nationality  and  German  nationality  have 
grown  up  in  like  manner.  (2.)  Sometimes  a  strong  tribe,  or  an 
army  of  soldiers,  subdued  another  tribe  or  part  of  a  nationali- 


2^2  FJistory   of  Governments. 

ty.  (3.)  TBus  territories  were  joined  tog^etber,  and  province 
was  added  to  province.  (4.)  Most  of  the  large  nationalities  in 
Europe  have  been  increased  by  such  additions  of  territory,  with 
its  inhabitants.  (5.)  A  war  or  a  treaty  between  principal 
states  added  territory  to  one  or  the  other.  (6.)  The  Austrian, 
Prussian  and  Russian  nationalities  have  been  auo^mented  in  this 
way.  (7.)  The  Italian  nationality  is  constituted  by  a  union  of 
several  provinces  formerly  governed  by  separate  sovereigns,  or 
by  Austria. 

"VI  — (1.)  A  nationality  made  by  mutual  consent,  and  se- 
cured through  a  common  language,  and  free  institutions,  is 
based  on  natural  laws  of  association.  (2.)  Every  citizen  pos- 
sesses the  right  to  vote  in  agreement  with  a  general  govern-, 
ment.  (3.)  No  resort  to  war  or  revolution  by  arms  is  neces- 
sary. (4. )  Every  state  is  represented  equally  in  the  National 
Senate.  (5.)  All  the  people  of  the  country  are  equally  repre- 
sented in  the  National  Congress.  (6.)  Every  question  of  diffi- 
culty may  be  settled  by  votes  of  the  people  at  their  elections. 
(7.)  No  large  military  force  is  necessary  beyond  the  militia  of 
each  state. 


CHAPTER   III. 


VILLAGES     AND     TOWNS. 


I. — (1.)  Village  government  is  the  basis  of  democratic  insti- 
tutions. (2.)  It  constitutes  a  union  of  free  citizens  for  mutual 
intercourse  and  benefit.  (3.)  It  is  the  simplest  form  of  govern- 
mental law. 

II, — (1.)  A  village  of  North  American  Indians  was  a  dem- 
ocratic republic.  (2.)  A  village  of  ancient  Britain  was  likewise 
democratic  in  its  government.  (3.)  Such  villages  are  found  at 
the  present  day  in  Africa  and  Polynesia,  and  among  Arabian  or 
Tartar  tribes. 


^  Villages  and  Towns.  253 

III. — (1.)  Villages  of  civilized  people  may  be  democracies 
under  the  republican  system.  (2.)  Democialic  authority  is  ex- 
ercised in  town  meetings  of  every  village  in  the  United  States. 
(3.)  Every  voter  is  a  citizen,  and  may  cast  his  vote  at  a  town 
meeting.  (4.)  The  people  of  a  village  thus  elect  their  officials 
and  decide  upon  public  measures  for  local  welfare. 

IV. — (1.)  On  matters  beyond  their  local  affairs,  villages  are 
governed  by  county  and  state  laws.  (2.)  They  are  represented  in 
boards  of  supervisors  and  by  members  of  the  legislature.  (3.)  In 
all  business  of  village  government  they  act  as  a  democracy. 
(4.)  In  all  matters  of  county  or  state  interest  they  take  part  as 
a  representative  or  republican  democracy. 

V. — (1.)  The  charter  of  a  village  corporation  legalizes  all 
public  business  transacted  in  accordance  with  it.  (2.)  Under 
its  provisions  the  villagers  elect  local  officers.  (3.)  The  powers 
and  duties  of  village  officers  are  prescribed  by  the  charter. 

VI. — (1.)  The  customary  government  of  a  village  in  the 
United  States  is  conducted  by  a  Board  of  Trustees,  who  elect  a 
Piesident  and  clerk.  (2.)  In  some  villages  a  President  is 
elected  by  the  people  in  town  meeting.  (3.)  Officers  are  chosen 
to  fix  the  value  of  property  and  the  amount  of  tax  assessable 
on  village  inhabitants,  and  to  collect  all  taxes.  (4.)  Other 
village  officers  are  treasurers,  road  commissioners,  fire-wardens, 
pound  masters,  fence-viewers,  one  or  more  being  elected  in  each 
village.  (5.)  In  some  southern  states  the  villages  are  denomina- 
ted parishes. 

VII. — (1.)  A  township  may  contain  one  or  more  villages. 
(2.)  When  a  town  government  is  constituted  by  charter-grant, 
the  village  government  is  merged  in  it.  (3.)  The  officers  of 
towns  consist  of  assessors,  road  commissioners,  justices  of  the 
peace,  constables,  overseers  of  the  poor,  inspectors  of  election, 
pound-masters,  fence-masters,  inspectors  of  weights  and  meai- 
ures,  town  clerks  and  tax  collectors.  (4.)  Each  town  charter 
fixes   the   number,  term   of   office,  and  compensation  of   local 


^£4  History  of  Governments. 

officers.     (5.)  Supervisors,  or  Select  men  are  chosen  to  "be  chief 
ofl&cers  of  towns. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  supervisor  is  a  member  of  the  town  hoard. 
(2.)  The  town  board  consists  usually  of  the  supervisor,  the 
town  clerk,  and  the  town  justices.  (3  )  The  supervisor  repre- 
sents the  town  in  a  Board  of  County  Supervisors. 

IX. — (1.)  The  inspectors  of  election  act  as  a  board  of  can- 
vassers at  each  town  election.  (2.)  Canvassers  are  officers  who 
receive  and  count  the  votes  cast,  and  keep  a  list  of  the  voters. 
(3.)  The  supervisors  of  towns  meet  as  a  board  of  county  can- 
vassers, to  count  all  votes  cast  in  the  county.  (4.)  They  con- 
stitute a  board  of  supervisors,  to  oversee  county  affairs. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

COUNTY     GOVEKNMENT. 

I. — (1.)  As  related,  concerning  early  usages  in  England,  a 
county  was  composed  of  wapentakes.  (2.)  Each  wapentake  com- 
prised a  land  district,  subsisting  one  hundred  families.  (3.) 
Tytldngs  were  subdivisions,  subsisting  ten  families  each.  (4.) 
A  county  was  known  as  a  shire,  and  signified  a  division  of  the 
people  for  military  purposes. 

II. — (1.)  The  chief  man  of  a  sMre  was  called  an  earldorman, 
and  subsequently  an  earl.  (2.)  The  title  was  equivalent  to 
that  of  count  in  France,  (3.)  Thus  the  shire  or  territory  of  an 
earl  came  to  be  designated  by  Norman  possessors  as  a  county. 
(4.)  The  officer  below  an  earl  in  rank  was  called  a  viscount,  or 
vice-count.  (5.)  The  sheriff  of  a  county  sometimes  bore  the 
title  of  vice-count, 

III. — (1.)  The  title  sheriff  was  originally  shire-reeve  ;  sig- 
nifying a  chief   steward.     (2.)  The  reeve  of   a   sliire   collected 


County   Government.  *  ^SS 

tittes  and  rents,  and  summoned  the  tenantry  to  attend  tbeir 
earl.  (3.)  The  Anglo-Saxon  name  of  reeve-  was  gerefa.  (4.) 
Graf  is  the  German  title  for  an  earl  or  count. 

IV. — (1.)  Villages,  towns  and  counties,  as  now  known,  were 
originally  in  England  iythings,  hundreds  and  shires.  (2.) 
The  land-holding  tenants  were  called  franldlns  or  freemen. 
(3.)  The  freemen  were  enrolled  as  members  of  the  tythings  and 
hundreds.  (4.)  As  population  and  industries  increased,  towns 
grew  up.  (5.)  In  populous  towns,  tythings  became  wards. 
(G.)  In  rural  districts  tythings  increased  to  hamlets  and  vil- 
lages. (7.)  The  word  hamlet  signified  a  collection  of  home- 
steads. 

V. — (1.)  In  ancient  Rome,  land-holders  dwelt  in  country- 
seats  called  villas.  (2.)  A  Roman  villa  sometimes  contained 
hundreds  of  families,  slaves  and  freedmen,  who  served  the  pro- 
prietor. (3.)  When  lands  were  sold,  slaves  were  sold  with 
them.  (4.)  Hence  they  were  called  villeins,  or  land-slaves. 
(5.)  Serf  and  serfdom  were  afterwards  known  as  villeinage. 
(6.)  Finally  the  word  village  became  used  to  signify  a  collection 
of  houses  in  rural  districts. 

VI. — (1.)  A  county  may  comprise  a  large  city  or  a  number 
of  towns  and  villages.  (2.)  Counties  in  the  United  States  are 
land  divisions  of  every  state.  (3.)  They  are  governed  by 
boards  of  supervisoi-s  representing  the  towns.  (4.)  Each 
county  has  a  sheriff,  and  a  district  attorney,  as  law  officers. 
(5.)  Counties  are  also  served  by  county  judges,  jail  officers, 
loan  commissioners,  and  officers  in  charge  of  weights  and  meas- 
urements. (6.)  Coroners  and  surrogates  are  county  officers. 
(7.)  A  coroner  examines  into  cases  of  sudden  death.  (8.)  A 
surrogate  is  intrusted  with  the  settlement  of  property  be- 
queathed by  wills. 

VII. — (1.)  Jail  officers  and  measurers  are  usually  appointed 
by  the  boai'd  of  supervisors.  (2.)  Other  officials  are  selected 
by  the  people  for  terms  of  years.  (3.)  .District  attorneys  pros- 
ecute and  defend  suits  for  the  people.     (4.)  Sheriffs  have  charge 


35^         •         History  of  Governments. 

of  jails  and  prisoners,  and  serve  legal  papers,  according  to 
statute  laws.  (5.)  Loan  commissioners  receive  and  loan  money 
in  accordance  with  statute  laws.  (6.)  School  commissioners 
visit  schools  in  the  county,  examine  teachers,  and  have  care  of 
public  education  in  the  county.  (7.)  Other  officials  are  elected, 
when  advisable,  under  charter  or  statute  laws. 


CHAPTER  V. 

LEGI3LATUKE3. 


I. — (1.)  The  voting  people,  m  an  American  state,  are  repre- 
sented in  their  state  legislature.  (2.)  The  number  of  represen- 
tatives in  a  legislature  is  fixed  by  the  state  constitution. 
(3.)  Tbey  are  chosen  from  districts ;  a  certain  number  of  the 
population  being  apportioned  to  each  district.  (4.)  The  highest 
number  of  votes  is  necessary  to  elect  a  candidate.  (5.)  This  is 
called  Si  plurality  of  votes.  (6.)  Most  of  the  officers  elected  in 
the  United  States  ai*e  chosen  by  &  plurality  vote. 

IT. — (1.)  The  legislature  of  a  state  is  sometimes  termed  its 
General  Assembly.  (2.)  It  comprises  two  branches,  an  upper 
house  and  a  lower  house.  (3.)  The  upper  house  is  styled  a 
Senate.  (4.)  The  lower  house  is  usually  called  an  Assembly  or 
House  of  Representatives.  (5.)  The  members  of  a  State  Sen- 
ate are  elected  from  large  legislative  districts.  (6)  Members 
of  the  other  house  are  elected  from  smaller  legislative  districts. 

III. — (1.)  Laws  are  passed  by  state  legislatures  in  like 
manner  as  in  Congress.  (2.)  A  majority  of  votes  in  each  house 
is  necessary  to  pass  a  bill,  and  the  Governor  must  sign  it,  to 
make  it  a  law.  (3.)  Some  laws  require  two-thirds  of  the  votes 
in  each  house  for  their  passage.  (4.)  A  state  legislature  pos- 
sesses all  powers  of  law-making  in  accordance  with  the  state 
constituion.  (5.)  Legislatures  apportion  and  fix  legislative 
districts  after  each  state  census. 


Congressional  and  Judicial  Districts.         357 

COXGRESSIOXAL     DISTRICTS. 

IV. (1.)  Members  of   Congress  are  choseii  from  districts 

fixed  by  law  according  to  population.  (2.)  The  apportionment 
is  made  by  Congress  after  each  national  census.  (3.)  Congress- 
men are  elected  to  the  House  of  Representatives.  (4.)  United 
States  Senators  are  elected  by  state  legislatures. 

v.— (1.)  A  state  legislature  elects  a  United  States  Senator 
to  represent  the  state.  (2.)  Members  of  congress  arc  elected 
to  represent  the  people  at  large  in  congressional  districts. 
(3.)  The  upper  house  and  lower  house  of  a  state  legislature 
elect  a  United  States  Senator  by  joint  ballot.  (4.)  Each  state 
is  represented  by  her  senators  thus  chosen.  (5.)  A  congress- 
ional district  must  contain,  at   least,  113,000  inhabitants. 

JUDICIAL  DISTBICTS. 

VI. — (1.)  The  judiciary  of  a  nation  embraces  its  courts  of 
law  and  justice.  (2.)  Judges  are  officials  appointed  to  hear  and 
decide  disputes,  and  to  administer  justice  in  cases  of  wrong-do- 
ing. (3.)  Judges  may  be  appointed  by  government,  or  elected 
by  the  people.  (4.)  In  the  United  States  there  is  a  judiciary 
for  the  nation,  and  an  independent  judiciary  in  each  state. 
(^.)  A  court  of  law  is  composed  of  one  or  more  of  the  judges 
presiding  over  a  trial. 

VII.— (I.)  The  United  States  judiciary  comprises  a  supreme 
court,  circuit  courts,  a  court  of  claims  and  district  courts,  and  offi- 
cials denominated  commissioners.  (2.)-The  supreme  court  con- 
sists of  a  chief  justice  and  eight  associate  justices,  appointed  by 
the  president  of  the  United  States  and  the  senate,  to  servo  dur- 
ing good  behavior.  (3.)  The  Supreme  court  is  held  at  Wash- 
ington. (4.)  The  circuit  courts  are  held  in  nine  judicial  dis- 
tricts. (5.)  Each  circuit  court  is  held  by  a  supreme  justice, 
and  the  district  court  judge. 

VIII- — (l.'i  Supreme  court  and  circuit  judges  conduct  all 
trials  in  which  the  United  States  is  a  party  to  any    suit.      (2.) 


2^S  History  of  Governments. 

Each  circuit  court  deals  with  crimes  committed  in  its  circuit, 
and  with  civil  suits  involving  no  more  than  five  hundred  dol- 
lars. (3.)  District  courts  are  thirty-eight  in  number.  (4.)  In 
each  district  there  is  a  United  States  judge,  a  U.  S.  district  at- 
torney, and  a  U.  S.  marshal,  apj)ointed  by  the  president  and 
senate.  (5.)  U.  S.  district  courts  have  jurisdiction  over  all 
cases  of  United  States  law  in  their  districts,  whether  on  land  or 
water.' 

IX« — (1.)  The  U.  S.  Coui-t  of  claims  is  held  at  Washington, 
(2.)  It  is  composed  of  a  chief  judge  and  four  associate  judges. 
(3.)  It  inquires  into  claims  against  the  United  States  which  are 
i-eferred  to  it.  (4.)  Other  United  States  courts  are  held  in  the 
territories  not  yet  admitted  as  states.  (5.)  Each  territory  has 
a  U.  S.  court,  with  a  judge,  district  attorney  and  marshal. 

X. — (1.)  United  States  commissioners  with  judicial  power 
are  appointed  for  specific  purposes.  (2.)  U.  S.  district  atfcor- 
iieys  are  charged  with  the  prosecution  of  government  claims, 
and  of  offenders  against  United  States  law.  (3.)  U.  S.  mar- 
shals superintend  the  national  census  in  their  districts,  oi/.ce  in 
ten  years,  and  carry  into  execution  the  orders  of  U.  S.  courts. 

XI. — (1.)  Each  state  of  the  United  States  has  its  independ- 
ent judiciary.  (2.)  The  duties  and  powers  of  state  and  local 
courts  are  defined  by  law  in  each  state.  (3.)  The  constitution 
of  a  state  usually  defines  state  courts  by  nb,me  and  limits 
of  jurisdiction.  (4.)  Other  courts  in  each  state  are  provided 
for,  by  terms  of  town  and  city  charters,  or  by  statute  laws. 
(4.)  Law  officers,  corresponding  to  the  courts,  are  either  elected 
by  vote  or  otherwise  appointed. 

JtTBIES. 

XH. — (1.)  Decisions  in  courts  of  law  are  intrusted  to  twelve 
judges,  selected  by  lot  from  citizens  at  large.  (2.)  They  are 
called  jurors,  and  the  twelve  constitute  a  jury.  (3.)  They 
listen  to  the  lawyers'  pleas,  and  testimony  of  witnesses,  and 
give  their  judgment  under  direction  of  the  court.     (4.)  Their 


Municipal   Government.  359 

judgment,  when  delivered,  is  called  a  verdict  of  a  jury,  and  tbey 
are  sworn  to  decide  in  accordance  with  law  and  facts  proven, 
(5.)  Eveiy  person  accused  of  any  offence  against  law  is  entitled 
to  a  trial  by  jury. 

XIII.— (1.)  Under  the  Saxon  government  in  England  a  jury 
was  composed  of  twelve  freeholders  chosen  out  of  the  wapen- 
take or' Imjidred.  (2.)  Freeholders  are  owners  of  real  estate. 
(3.)  In  courts  of  Scotland  a  majority  of  any  jury  can  deliver  a 
verdict  for  all.  (4.)  In  the  United  States,  as  in  England,  the 
twelve  jurors  must  agree  upon  their  verdict. 

XIV. — (1.)  Coroners'  juries  are  composed  of  six  or  more 
citizens  called  by  a  coroner  to  view  the  body  of  a  dead  person, 
and  decide  as  to  the  cause  of  death.  (2.)  Grand  juries  are 
juries  of  citizens  summoned  by  law  to  inquire  whether  persons 
or  corporations  are  chargeable  with  offences  against  law  or  pub- 
lic order. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


MUNICIPAL     GOVERNMENT. 


I — (1.)  Municipal  government  means  the  government  of 
free  citizens  in  a  town  or  city.  (2.)  Municipal  rights  are  the 
rights  of  self-government,  enjoyed  by  a  city  population.  (3.) 
The  word  municeps  means  a  citizen  of  a  free  town.  (4.)  Muni- 
cipal law  is  charter  law  granted  to  a  city  by  the  supreme  pow- 
er of  the  state.  (5.)  Charter  law  confers  munities,  or  fran- 
chises and  securities,  wherever  it  is  bestowed.  (6. )  In  a  re- 
public the  people  of  a  state  confer  munities  by  charter  laws, 
and  such  munities  are  held  as  rights  under   charter  laws. 

II. — (1.)  Jloman  towns  regulated  their  own  affairs  ;  even 
under  the  Emperors.  (2.)  A  specified  body  of  citizens  elected 
local  judges  and  other  officers.  (3.)  They  likewise  elected  an 
officer   called    city    defender,  who    protected     citizens    against 


j6o  History  of  Governments. 

arbitrary  or  unjust  ruling  hj  imperial  officers.  (4)  Municipal 
government  continued  to  be  enjoyed  by  city  populations  dur- 
ing the  middle  ages.  (5.)  The  German  free  cities  and  several 
Italian  cities  preserved  local  liberty  in  this  way. 

III. — (1.)  When  the  Normans  invaded  England,  their  chiefs 
respected  the  claims  of  city  populations  to  local  government. 
(2.)  Norman  kings  granted  charters  to  London  and  other  En- 
glish towns.  (3.) Viscounts  wore  appointed  in  each  shire,  to 
act  as  county-sheriffs.  (4.)  A  chief  magistrate,  called  a 
mayor,  was  appointed  in  every  large  town,  to  act  as  the  bailiff 
or  civil  governor.  (5.)  The  title  bailiff,  arose  from  the  word 
baillle  ;  signifying  free  government.  (6.)  The  title  mayor 
comes  from  the  word  major ;  signifying  superior  jjosition  or 
power. 

IV. — (1.)  Free  towns  in  England  possessed  a  voting  popu- 
lation, who  elected  local  magistrates.  (2.)  They  were  known  as 
tax-payers, and  shared  certain  public  duties  and  responsibilities. 
(3.)  Privileges  and  munities  were  granted  to  them  by  charter 
from  the  crown.  (4.)  Trades-peopie  in  cities  associated  as/ree 
^MiMs  under  charter  grants.  (5.)  Guilds  were  trade-unions,  %Q- 
cured  in  special  rights  and  privileges  by  royal  charter. 

v.— (1.)  A  land  district  occupied  by  dwelling-houses  was 
anciently  called  a  bm-gh  or  borough.  (2.)  The  heads  of  fami- 
lies dwelling  in  a  horgh  became  sureties  for  each  other  to  their 
king  or  chief  man.  (3.)  In  return,  they  were  defended  by  the 
chief  in  possession  of  their  homes,  and  certain  freedoms, 
(4.)  The  borgh  system  of  mutual  sureties  is  common  in  Japan. 
(5.)  The  word  borgh  signified  a  security  or  defence.  (6.)  As 
horouglis  increased  in  population  and  dwellings,  they  became 
towns  and  cities.  (7.)  Charters  from  the  crown  confirmed 
their  ancient  rights,  and  granted  others.  (8.)  In  this  way  the 
right  of  representation  in  parliament  was  given  to  bor- 
oughs. 

VI.— (1.)  Municipal  systems  and  borough  systems  are  of 
very  ancient  date.     (2.)  They  appear  to  have  been  known  in  all 


Municipal   Government.  361 

nations  under  different  names  (3.)  Thev  preserved  the  princi- 
ple of  self-government  from  age  to  age.  (4.)  Rights  of  election 
and  of  representation  were  thus  kept  in  mind.  (5.)  These 
rights  were  often  encouraged  by  kings,  to  repress  the  power  of 
the  nobility. 

VII — (1-)  Cities  of  the  United  States  are  governed  by 
local  officers,  chosen  by  their  feliow  citizens.  (2.)  The  city 
limits  are  divided  into  districts  called  wards.  (3.)  In  some 
cities  a  ward  population  elects  a  ward  magistrate  called  alder- 
man. (4.)  In  other  cities  a  general  body,  styled  a  Board 
of  Aldermen,  ov  Common  Council,  is  elected.  (5.)  Boards  of 
Aldermen  are  legislative  bodies  for  cities.  (6.)  They  enact 
local  laws  and  ordinances,  in  accordance  with  statute  and  char- 
ter laws. 

VIII. — (1.)  The  Chief  Magistrate  of  a  city  is  called  Mayor. 
(2.)  He  is  charged  with  the  supervision  of  municii>al  adminis- 
tration. (3.)  Municipal  administration  is  confided  to  munici- 
pal departments.  (4.)  The  powers  and  duties  of  such  depart- 
ments are  defined  by  charter  or  statute  laws.  (5.)  Departments 
comprise  the  administration  of  justice,  police  affairs,  health 
and  safety  of  citizens.  (6.)  They  likewise  take  charge  of 
education,  public  charity,  tax  collection,  public  works,  city 
finances,  and  public  proi>erty.  (7.)  In  a  free  city,  or  Municipal- 
ity, all  local  matters  are  regulated  by  resident  voters,  under 
charter-law  securities. 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

STATE     GOVERNMENT. 


I. — (1.)  A  State  is  a  body  of  people,  under  government  of 
their  choice,  or  under  superior  rule.  (2.)  It  is  a  stationary  or 
permanent  body  of  people,  occupying  lands  and  dwellings. 
(3  )  The  territory  occupied  by  a  state  population  ma^  be  large 


3^2  HIsfory  of  Governments. 

or  small.  (4.)  The  Republic  of  San  Marino,  in  Italy,  lias  et- 
isted  a  thousand  years,  with  a  territory  of  only  twenty-one 
miles  in  area. 

II* — (1.)  Smaller  states  may  be  included  in  larger  ones, 
preserving  state  boundaries  and  state  laws.  (2.)  Large  states 
may  be  governed  by  small  states.  (3.)  The  government  of  the 
Xetherlands,  representing  five  provinces,  of  different  dialects, 
is  called  the  states-general.  (4.)  Government  of  thirty  eight 
America'!  states  is  called  the  United  States  government.  (5.) 
Each  state  population  is  distinct  with  state  government  ;  but- 
all  the  people  share  in  the  general  government  through  their 
•elected  agents. 

III. — (1.)  The  United  States  government  exercises  no  juris- 
diction over  state  governments.  (2.)  Its  power  is  intended  to  pro- 
tect the  people  at  large.  (3.)  It  is  intrusted  with  the  supervision 
of  commerce,  currency,  foreign  intercourse,  postal  service,  and 
taxation  for  national  purposes.  (4.)  Its  powers  are  controlled 
by  congress  and  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 

IV. — (1.)  The  two  United  States  Senators  of  each  state 
represent  their  state  as  a  self-governing  body.  (2.)  They  have 
position  and  voice  to  declare  the  popular  will  of  their  state. 
(3.)  The  congressmen,  elected  from  districts,  represent  a  na- 
tionality of  citizens  throughout  all  the  states.  (4.)  The  agree- 
ment of  senators  and  representatives,  making  laws,  represents 
state  governments  and  the  nationality  as  one  government. 

v.— (1.)  Each  state  of  the  United  States  is  governed  ac- 
cording to  its  own  constitution.  (2.)  That  charter  of  govern- 
ment is  usually  agreed  upon  in  a  state  convention  of  elected 
delegates.  (3.)  It  operates  as  supreme  law  during  a  specified 
term  of  years.  (4.)  Its  provisions  define  the  powers  and  the 
duties  of  state  officers,  courts  of  law,  and  other  permanent 
officials  and  agencies  of  government.  (5.)  All  legislation  must 
be  in  accordance  with  those  provisions. 

VI. — (1.)  A  state  government  comprises  a  governor  and 
lieutenant  governor,  a  secretary  of  state,  a  state  treasurer,  and 


State   Government.  ^^3 

a  cMef  law  officer.  (2.)  It  sometimes  embraces  a  counoil  of 
state  commissioners,  of  various  departments,  and  other  officials, 
appointed  or  elected  under  statute  laws.  (3.)  It  superintends 
all  state  works,  prisons,  highways,  and  water-ways,  within  its 
state  limits. 

VII. — (I.)  The  voters  of  each  state  vote  for  their  own 
presidential  electors.  (2.)  Presidential  electors  are  state  offi- 
cers exclusively.  (3.)  They  assemble,  when  elected,  in  a  body 
called  the  state  electoral  college,  within  the  boundaries  of  their 
own  state.  (4.)  Their  duty  is  to  count  and  decide  the  vote  of 
their  state  for  president  and  vice  president  of  the  United  States. 
(5.)  They  never  go  out  of  the  jurisdiction  or  limits  of  their 
own  state,  but  assemble  as  a  college  usually  at  the  state 
capitol.  When  they  perform  their  specified  duties,  they  elect 
a  messenger  to  carry  their  count  to  the  national  congress.  (7.) 
They  then  adjourn  as  a  state  electoral  college, concluding  their 
official  work. 


COLONIZATION  iND  COMBINATIOxN. 


CHAPTER  I. 

MIGRATIONS. 


I. — (1.)  The  earliest  colonies,  of  which  we  have  historic 
record,  were  plamted  by  Egyptians  and  Phoenicinns.  (2.)  Phoe- 
nicians were  those  tribes  mentioned  in  Hebrew  cLronicles  as 
Philistines.  (3.)  They  inhabited  the  coast  of  Canaan,  now 
called  Palestine,  from  the  foot-hills  of  Mount  Taurus  to  an 
island  called  Tyre.  (4.)  Tyre,  from  its  maritime  situation,  be- 
came a  centre  of  commerce,  and  the  Phoenicians  were  a  nation 
of  merchants  and  navigators.  (5.)  They  traded  with  all  people 
then  known,  through  caravans  traveling  overland,  or  by  vessele 
called  galleys,  with  oars,  rowed  by  slaves,  and  defended  by 
ai-med  soldiers.  (6.)  Colonies  of  Phoenicians  and  their  slaves 
settled  in  Euroj)e,  forming  communities,  which  peoj^led  the 
lands  now  known  as  Spain,  France,  and  Great  Britain. 
(7.)  Traits  of  Hebrew  and  Phoenician  ancestors  are  traceable 
in  their  descendants  of  Celtic  blood.  (8.)  Phoenician  mariners 
and  Hebrew  slaves  made  original  settlements,  as  far  north 
as  Ireland. 

II. — (1.)  Migrations  from  Egypt  and  Assyria,  to  other  parta 

of  Africa  and  Asia,  and  to  Europe,  were  frequent   in   ancient 

times.     (2.)  Military  chiefs  conducted  their  families  and  slaves 

to  remote  distances,  settling  India  and  Farther  Asia.    (3.)  When 

Egyptian  or  Assyrian  soldiers  and  their  priesthoods  combined 

to  migrate,  they  instituted  their  mode  of  government  wherever 

they  went.     (4.)  In  this  way  a  separation  of  people  into  classes 

was  continued,  through  the  caste  system  of  India. 
Mi 


Colonization  and  Combination.  365 

III.— (1.)  Where  pastoral  tribes  migrated,  with  their  flocks 
and  herds,  thev  sought  valleys  defended  from  aggression  by 
moimtains  and  defiles.  (2.)  Weaker  communities  thus  secured 
safer  abiding  places,  and  became  mountain  tribes.  (3.)  Pasto- 
ral  people,  in  migration,  associated  or  separated,  accordingly 
as  they  we*-e  attracted  by  eligible  areas  of  land,  for  grass  and 
tillage.  (4.)  Thus  various  wandering  families  from  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia  found  their  way  to  valleys  of  Taurian  and  Cau- 
casian mountains,  and  spread  over  plains  of  Asia  and  Europe. 
(6.)  Persians,  Medes,  and  other  mountain  nations,  were  so  es- 
tablished, usually  governed  by  chiefs  and  chosen  men. 
(G.)  Patriarchal  government  was  preserved  in  single  tribes, 
wandering,  with  cattle,  as  Arabian  families  now  move  about. 
(7.)  Such  tribes,  in  combination,  could  readily  constitute  an 
independent  nationality.  (8.)  Each  male  member  of  such 
t,ribes  bore  arms,  and  personal  independence  was  encouraged  in 
each  community. 

IV.— (1.)  Wandering  tribes  confederated  for  mutual  defence 
throughout  Northern  Europe.  (2.)  Thus  originated  those  bar- 
barian  nations  which  afterward  grew  powerful  enough  to  over- 
run the  Roman  Empire.  (3.)  Many  of  those  confederate  bar- 
barians were  descendants  of  people  who  had  escaped  from 
Assyrian  or  Egyptian  servitude.  (4.)  Solavonian  communities, 
now  occupying  Russia  and  Northern  Europe,  are  the  posterity 
of  people  who  migrated  from  lands  oppressed  by  Asiatic  des- 
potism. (5.)  To  such  migrations  of  wandering  tribes,  coloniz- 
ing  upper  Europe,  all  barbarian  nationalities  were  traced. 

v.— (1.)  Barbarism  was  simply  the  subsis|;ence  of  people  in 
communities  remote  from  civilized  arts  and  sciences.  (2.)  Men 
were  content  to  dwell  in  rude  habitations,  and  to  remain 
peacefiii,  so  long  as  they  obtained  subsistence  from  the  earth,  or 
by  such  handicrafts  as  commanded  wages  for  labor.  (3.)  But 
when  they  increased  to  numbers  crowding  the  lands  they  occu- 
pied, subsistence  was  gained  with  difficulty,  and  they  began  to 
migrate  in  tribes  and  nations.  (4.)  Conducted  by  chosen 
chiefs,  the  barbarian  tribes  moved  southward.     (5.)  Southern 


^66  History  of  Governments. 

Europe,  above  tlie  river  Rhine,  was  then  a  vast  wilderness,  in- 
habited by  scattered  tribes.  (G.)  Roman  armies  were  S3nt  to 
conquer  those  tribes,  and  were  sometimes  successful,  sometimes 
defeated.  (8.)  When  northern  barbarians  arrived  at  the  Rhine, 
they  combined  with  southern  barbarians,  to  invade  the  Roman 
possessiona. 


CHAPTER  II 

CONQUEST. 


I. — (1.)  In  lower  Asia,  during  ages,  there  were  continuous 
successions  of  wars.  (2.)  Population  in  Eastern  lands  was 
augmented  by  the  increase  of  persons  captured  in  war  or  held 
in  servitude  as  slaves  by  birth.  (3.)  There  was  no  condition 
such  as  citizenship  known  in  Egyj»t  or  Assyria.  (4.)  Priest- 
hood and  aristocracy  constituted  governing  classes,  who  main- 
tained armies  of  soldiers,  paying  for  military  sei*vice  by  taxation 
of  the  working  people.  (5.)  Dynasties,  or  successions  of  mon- 
archs  belonging  to  one  family,  ruled  from  generation  to  gener- 
ation. (6.)  At  intervals,  revolutions  took  place,  and  dynastic 
government  was  transferred  from  family  to  family.  (7.)  A 
vigorous  confederacy  of  pastoral  tribes,  invading  Egypt,  was 
able  to  take  possession  of  that  country  and  to  change  its  rulers. 
(8.)  In  like  manner,  the  Medes  and  Persians  descended  from 
their  mountain  villages,  and  conquered  Assyria.  (9.)  After- 
wards, a  nation  of  Greek  extraction,  in  Macedonia,  under 
Alexander  the  Great,  succeeded  in  subjugating  both  Egypt  and 
Assyria. 

II. — (1.)  A  history  of  the  Eastern  world,  in  those  centuries, 
is  a  history  of  mankind  enslaved  by  dynasties  and  aristocracies, 
and  of  wars  made  to  coerce  tribes  and  nations.  (2.)  Annals  of 
European  nations,  during  like  periods,  chiefly  record  an  in- 
crease of  Roman  possessions  by  a  similar  employment  of  armies 
to  subjugate  foreign  nationalities,  and  to  substitute  slave  labor 
for  free  labor,  in  handicrafts  and  agricultuie. 


Conquest.  367 

III, — (1.)  Barbarism,  in  European  wildernesses,  preserved 
communities  in  comparative  freedom  and  independence,  while 
libertv  was  unknown  to  the  masses  of  Eastern  nations,  and  was 
lost  by  Greeks  and  Romans.  (2.)  When  Greek  republics 
yielded  their  independence,  and  the  Roman  commonwealth  was 
crushed  under  imperial  dynasties,  all  popular  rights  and  liber- 
ties became  extinct.  (3.)  Barbarian  invasions  had  the  eifect  of 
infusintf  new  blood,  and  more  manliness,  into  the  communities 
thev  overran.  (4.)  Roman  empire  was  divided  under  the  rule 
of  barbarian  chiefs,  and  barbarian  customs  modified  govern- 
ment everywhere.  (5.)  Despotic  authority  retreated  to  Asia, 
where  it  had  originated.  (6.)  Several  independent  monarchies 
were  established  by  barbarian  armies  in  Italy,  France  and 
Germany.  . 

IV. — (1-)  But  the  masses  of  the  people  only  changed  mas- 
ters. (2.)  Sultans  and  shahs  succeeded  Assyrian  kings  in 
eastern  countries,  while  military  monarchs  followed  Caesars,  in 
forming  aristocracies  throughout  Europe.  (3.)  Subordinate 
barbarian  chiefs  were  endowed  with  large  possessions  of  land, 
as  gifts  from  their  conquering  leaders.  (4.)  Holding  such 
grants  of  land,  they  claimed  to  rule  over  the  people  who  owned 
such  lands,  making  them  tenants  at  will.  (5.)  In  this  way 
mihtary  followers  of  barbarian  kings  became  feudal  barons, 
witli  hereditary  rank.  (6.)Tiller8  of  the  soil,  workers  at  handi- 
crafts, and  all  laboring  people,  were  looked  upon  as  servants  and 
slaves.  (7.)  Merchants  and  manufacturers  were  held  to  be  in- 
ferior classes,  and  were  compelled  to  pay  taxes  to  support  aristo- 
cratic  and  kiuglj  gOYerumeut. 


CHAPTER  IIL 


ANNEXATION. 


I.— (1.)  Conquest  by  war,  in  ancient  times,  was  usually  fol- 
lowed by  eequestration  of  territory.  (2.)  Conquered  people 
were  dispossessed  of  their  lands,  and  sometimes  removed  from 
their  own  country,  to  become  slaves  or  settlers  in  other  lands. 
(3.)  When  the  Jewish  nation  was  subjugated  by  Assyrian  in- 
vaders, large  numbers  of  Jews  were  carried  into  Assyrian  cap- 
tivity. (4.)  Invading  monarchs  were  accustomed  to  divide  a 
conquered  country  among  their  chiefs  and  soldiers.  (5.)  The 
practice  of  sequestrating  the  lands  of  a  people  defeated  in  war, 
or  reduced  to  submission,  after  rebellion,  continued  through 
many  ages.  (6.)  When  barbarian  armies  overran  the  Romaa 
empire,  all  C07jquered  territory  was  held  to  pass  into  possess- 
ion of  the  invaders.  "When  the  Saxons  subdued  the  island 
tribes  of  Britain,  they  took  possession  of  lands,  villages  and 
cities.  (8.)  When  the  Normans  subsequently  conquered  the 
iSaxoo  nation  in  Britain,  they  divided  lands  and  provinces  in  a 
like  manner,  among  their  chiefs  and  soldiers. 

U_ — (1.)  Territories  were  sometimes  passed  from  one  gov* 
eriiment  to  another  by  peaceful  transfer.  (2.)  In  such  cases, 
there  was  no  sequestration  of  lands  and  no  invasion  of  privat«! 
titles  to  them.  (3.)  If  the  people,  however,  objected  to  a 
change  of  their  governors,  and  rose  in  arms,  to  resist,  they 
were  treated  as  enemies,  and,  if  repressed,  were  compelled  to 
resign  possession  of  their  lands.  (4.)  When  marriages  were 
contracted  between  royal  families,  provinces  and  sometimes 
entire  countries  were  transferred,  as  dowries  or  settlements. 
(5.)  The  preferences  of  communities  or  individuals,  in  regard 
to  governing  powers,  were  never  consulted.  (6.)  Dynastic 
claims  were  the  only  claims  respected  in  transferring  ,  territor- 
ies from  government  to  government.  (7.)  A  dynasty  was  a 
368 


Annexation.  369 

line  or  succession  of  monarclis,  liolJing  tlieir  autliority  bv 
claims  of  blood-connection.  (8.)  Dynasties  terminate  when 
supplanted  by  superior  force,  or  when  the  blood-relationsbip 
becomes  extinct  through  death.  (9.)  Most  of  the  European 
states  are  governed  by  dynastic  successions. 

III. — (1.)  Wars  and  marriage  connections  between  dynas- 
tic governments  have  constructed  the  principal  countries  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  as  they  are  now  shown  upon  niaj^s.  (2.) 
Small  territories,  populated  by  land-holding  lords,  have  been 
augmented  through  many  generations  of  successive  rulers, 
until  they  now  I'ank  as  kingdoms  and  empires.  (3.)  Austria 
is  formed  out  of  various  countries,  formerly  governed  by  in- 
dependent sovereigns,  and  now  ruled  by  an  imperial  dynasty. 
(4. )  Prussian  empire  is  the  result  of  successful  wars,  followed 
by  annexations  and  sequestrations  of  alien  territory,  (5.)  The 
kingdom  of  Poland,  after  being  subjugated  by  superior  force, 
was  partitioned  between  Russia,  Austria  and  Prussia,  losing 
its  very  name  by  absorption  into  foreign  countries.  (6.)  The 
government  of  Austria  extended,  until  lately,  over  a  large  por- 
tion of  Italy.  (7.)  The  government  of  England  formerly  laid 
claim  to  large  territories  in  France,  and  waged  successive  wars 
to  make  good  that  claim.  (9.)  The  Turkish  government  for- 
merly ruled  Greece,  and  several  German  princij^alities  beyond 
the  river  Danube.  (10.)  But  the  defeat  of  Turkey  by  Russia, 
in  the  last  war  between  those  powers,  alf oi'ded  pretext  for  se- 
questration of  Turkish  territory  between  several  European 
powers. 

IV. — (1.)  The  government  of  Q-reat  Britain  has  sequestra- 
ted and  annexed  a  large  part  of  Hindostan,  and  the  chief  isl- 
ands of  Polynesia.  (2.)  Great  Britain  has  likewise,  through 
successful  wai's  or  treaties,  obtained  territory  in  Asia,  Africa 
and  America.  (3.)  The  govei'nment  of  Spain,  claiming  do- 
minion by  right  of  discovery,  formerly  ruled  the  whole  of  colo- 
nized South  America.  (5.)  Spanish  government  in  South 
America  was  overthrown  by  popular  revolution,  as  British 
government  in  North  America  was  limited  in   the   same  way. 


370  History   of  Governments. 

(5.)  Spain  now  holds  possession  of  Culja  and  Porto  Rico,  and 
Great  Britain  governs  Canada  and  several  West  Indian  islands, 
through  a  viceroy  and  governors. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AUTONOMY   OF   STATBEI. 

I. — (1.)  The  right  of  every  human  being  to  life,  liberty,  and 
the  pursuit  of  happiness  is  declared  to  be  a  natural  and  inalien- 
able right.  (2.)  But  natural  rights  are  common  to  all  human 
beings,  and  no  individual  right  can  permit  one  person  to  injure 
another.  (3.)  Each  individual  holds  his  natural  rights  subject 
to  the  welfare  of  all  other  individuals.  (4.)  No  individual 
possesses  the  right  to  kill  auother,  or  to  enslave  another,  or  to 
interfere  "with  another's  pursuit  of  happiness.  (5.)  Warfare 
between  governments  authorizes  individuals  to  kill  in  accord- 
ance with  certain  usages  of  war.  (6.)  Laws  of  a  government 
command  the  life  of  a  criminal  to  be  taken,  or  the  liberty  of  an 
offender  against  public  order  to  be  restricted.  (7.)  In  such 
cases  the  natural  right  to  life,  liberty,  and  pursuit  of  happiness, 
is  forfeited  by  the  individual,  because  he  or  she  becomes  an 
offender  against  fellow  beings,  by  invading  their  natural  rights- 

II. — (1.)  As  every  individual  in  a  community  possesses  natur- 
al rights,  so  it  follows  that  communities  of  individuals  possess 
the  right  to  associate  and  be  governed  as  they  prefer,  pi-oviding 
their  combination  and  government  do  not  molest  or  endanger 
the  rights  of  other  communities  to  select  their  own  social  and 
political  modes  of  living.  (2.)  The  rights  of  an  individual 
become  enlarged  into  the  rights  of  all  individuals  constitu- 
ting a  community.  (3.)  The  number  of  people  embraced  in 
such  a  community  may  be  great  or  small.  (4.)  They  may 
comprise  a  population,  and  claim  a  territory,  of  a  few  thousand 
]ieople  and  a  few  hundred  miles;  but  if  they  associate  together 
ui  unity,  and  agree   on  their   own  form   of  government,  they 


Autonomy  of  States.  371 

constitute  a  state.  (4.)  Such  a  slate  is  independent,  by  natural 
rights,  of  all  other  neighboring  states,  large  or  small.  (6.) 
Its  preference  to  be  independent,  as  a  community,  and  to  dwell 
under  such  government  as  its  people  prefer,  is  said  to  be  its 
claim  to  autonomy. 

III^_(1.)  ArTONOMT  is  a  word  derived  from  certain  Greek 
words;  autos  (meaning  self,)  and   nemein,  to  exercise   rule;)  and 
its  signification  is  self-government.     (2.)  The  right  of  a  state  to 
self-government  is  its  right  to  autonomt.     (3.)  The   limits   of 
territory   claimed  by  such  a  state   are     its  autonomic   limits. 
(4.)  If  a  stronger  state,  by  force  of  war,  or  by  any  pretext,  de- 
prives another  self-governed  people  of  territory,or  imposes  laws 
upon  them  without  their  consent,it  invades  and  ends  their  auto- 
nomy.    (5. )  When  a  border  province  of  France  has  been  annexed 
by  Germany  against  the  will  of  its  people,  or  a  border  province 
of  Gei-many  is  annexed  by  France  in  opposition  to  its  inhabit- 
ants, the   right   of  autonomy  is  invaded  and   a  community  is 
denied  its  preference  for  self-government  in  its  own  territory. 
(6.)  When  the  wars  of  Great  Britain  in  India  overthrew  native 
governments,  and  substituted  British  sovereignty  over  Hindoo 
natives  and  thefr  lands,  there  was  an  abolition  of  autonomy  in 
every   subjugated   Indian   country.     (7.)   A  treaty  si  -ned  by 
European  prime  ministers,  after  the  last  war  between  Russia 
and  Turkey,  deprived  the   latter   nation  of  several  provinces, 
without  consaltation  with  the  iahabitants  of   those    provinces. 
(8.)  The  autonomy  of  no  divided  or  annexed  country  was  guar- 
antied to  its  inhabitants,  because  they  were  transferred   as  if 
their  lands   and  themselves  had    been  bought  and  sold     in 
open  market. 

lY ,_(!.)  If  the  AUTONOMY  of  every  community,  or  nation- 
ality, i'n  Europe  and  Asia,  were  respected  by  neighbors,  and  by 
governments  at  large,  there  would  be  self-government  for  each 
state  established  by  its  people.  (2.)  Each  state  would  then 
be  sovereign  and  independent,  like  each  of  the  United  States 
of  America.  (3.)  This  would  not  prevent  their  association, 
state  with   state,  to  form  a  imion  of  states,  like  the  American 


J72  History  of  Governments. 

Union.  (4.)  Germany  might  be  a  nationality  of  German 
States,  as  it  claims  to  be,  with  a  full  and  free  autonomy  guar- 
antied to  each  state.  (5.)  Austria  might  form  a  union  of  all 
Sclavonic  states,  and  allow  autonomy  to  every  state  embraced 
in  it.  (6.)  The  adoj^tiou  of  a  national  constitution,  like  that  of 
the  United  States  of  America,  and .  the  recognition  of  a  state 
constitution  for  each  state,  would  constitute  a  national  union, 
by  which  the  people  of  every  state,  and  every  community  in  a 
state,  could  be  represented  in  national  congress.  (7.)  Dynastic 
authority  is  opposed  to  such  autonomic  independence;  and  cen- 
tral government,  more  or  less  despotic,  is  substituted  for  auto- 
nomic or  popular  self-government. 

V. — (1.)  The  Republic  of  Prance  embraces  in  its  territorial 
divisions  eighty -nine  departments — presided  over  by  pre- 
fects. (2.)  If  the  people  of  those  divisions  were  allowed  to  ex- 
ercise autonomic  government,  they  might  elect  a  governor 
for  each  department  by  popular  vote,  under  a  state  constitu- 
tion, and  provide  for  state  judiciaries  and  other  state,  muni- 
cipal, and  village  officers.  (3.)  This  would  approximate  the 
French  government  to  those  forms  which  constitute  autonomic 
government  in    the  United    States  of   America. 

"VI. — (1.)  AuTONOivrsr,  in  popular  government,  is  illustrated 
by  the  United  States  Federal  and  State  constitutions.  (2.)  The 
American  Union  of  states,  as  a  bepublic,  is  a  complete  form  of 
NATIONAL  AUTONOMY  ;  defining  its  own  government  and  the  ex- 
tent of  its  territory.  (3.)  Each  state  of  the  union  is  a  com- 
plete state,  self  governed,  and  with  defined  boundaries.  (4.) 
There  are  large  states,  like  New  York  and  Texas,  claiming  ter- 
ritory as  wide  in  extent  as  some  kingdoms  of  Europe.  (5.) 
There  are  small  states  like  Rhode  Island  and  Delaware,  of  very 
limited  dimensions.  (6)  But  each  state  is  an  autonomy,  equal 
in  self-government  to  each  of  its   fellow   states,  as  members  of 

the    NATIONAL  REPUBLIC. 


COMITY  OF  NATIONS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


TREATIES. 


I, — (1.)  Compacts  "between  man  and  man,  whether  as 
individuals  or  communities,  Lave  been  customary  in  all  times. 
(2.)  Solemn  obligations,  ratified  by  oaths,  combined  tribes 
and  nations  for  war  and  peace.  (3.)  Stipulations  for  mutual 
defence  against  aggression,  or  agreements  concerning  bound- 
aries of  land,  and  privileges  of  trade  or  passage  from  country 
to  country,  were  known  in  the  earliest  historic  ages.  (4.) 
Such  common  understanding  between  communities,  generally 
made  in  writing,  sealed  and  signed,  are  known  as  treaties. 

II, — (1.)  The  obligations  embraced  by  treaties  constitute 
in  modern  times,  the  comity  of  nations;  whereby  friendly 
relations  subsist,  during  peace,  and  certain  usages  of  war  are 
recognized.  (2.)  Treaties  imbody  a  code  of  regulations  and 
agreements  between  governments,  generally  termed  interna- 
tional LAW.  (3.)  Special  understandings  may  subsist,  by 
treaty,  between  two  governments,  exclusive  of  other  govern- 
ments. (4.)  Treaties  are  usually  made  by  a  convention  of  persons 
'assembling  together,  as  representatives  of  their  respective 
governments.  (5.)  These  representative  persons  are  delegated 
with  certain  authority,  by  their  respective  governments,  and  are 
termed  ambassadors  or  ministers. 

III. — (1.)  Ambassadors   and  ministers  are  of  two  kinds. 

373 


374  Treaties. 

(2.)  Eesident  ministers  are  persons  appointed  by  one  govern- 
ment to  reside  in  the  capital  cities  of  other  countries,  as 
representatives  of  their  own  government.  (3.)  Ambassadors 
are  usually  appointed  for  a  special  duty,  to  represent  their 
governments  in  a  treaty-making  convention  or  other  congress 
of  various  powers.  (4.)  A  minister  resident  continues  to  be 
his  country's  representative  abroad  for  as  long  a  period  as  his 
government  employs  him.  (5.)  He  is  the  chief  medium  of 
international  relations  between  his  government  and  the  gov- 
ernment to  which  he  is  sent.  (6.)  He  receives  a  salary  for 
his  services,  atid  is  assisted  by  a  secretary  of  legation,  and 
by  other  officials,  appointed  and  paid  like  bimself,  by  their  own 
government. 

IV, — (1.)  The  official  intercourse  between  ambassadors, 
ministers,  and  other  international  agents,  is  called  diplomatic 
Es-TERCOURSE.  (2.)  Besides  ministers  resident,  Other  officials  are 
appointed  by  different  governments,  to  reside  at  the  sea  ports 
of  other  countries,  and  to  act  as  representatives  called  consul- 
general,  consuls,  and  commercial  agents.  (3.)  A  consul- 
general,  in  a  foreign  country  ranks,  next  in  authority  to  his 
country's  minister-resident,  and  is  chief  of  the  various  consuls 
and  commercial  agents  representing  his  country.  (4.)  Consuls 
and  commercial  agents  represent  the  government  and  commer- 
cial interests  of  their  own  country,  and  protect  its  citizens,  in 
foreign  parts. 

v. — (1.)  When  cause  of  disagreement  threatens  war  be- 
tween two  governments,  the  minister  resident,  or  ambassador, 
suspends  his  functions,  and  retires  to  his  own  country  ;  or  his 
recognition,  as  a  representative  of  his  own  governmeat,  is  ter- 
minated by  the  government  to  which  he  is  accredited.  (2.) 
CoinxY  between  the  two  nations  then  ceases,  and,  if  war  ensues, 
they  are  termed  "belligerent  governments."  (3.)  But  the. 
COMITY  OF  NATIONS  remains  in  force  over  both,  to  regulate  their 
modes  of  warfare,  according  to  usages  of  civilization. 

VI, — (1.)  "Balance  of  power,"  as  it  is  termed,  is  an 
arbitrary  regulation,  sustained  by  force,  but  recognized  as  a 
provision  of  comity  between  the  principal  nations  of  Europe. 


History  of  Governments.  375 

(2.)  Under  its  operations  the  stronger  governments  of  Europe 
assume  the  authority  to  dictate  boundaries  of  various  coun- 
tries.    (3.)  They  dictate,   by  treaty   stipulations,    after  a  war, 
or  to  avert  war,  whether  a  province  or  a  country  shall  belong 
to  one  or  another  European  nation.     (4.)  Their  decisions,  at 
various  periods,  have   transferred  feeble   governments  to   the 
control  of  stronger  ones,  and  annexed  or  sequestrated  the  ter- 
ritories of  entire  nations.     (5.)  The  autonomy   of  a  State,  in 
Europe,  is  not  considered,  in  such  changes  of   its  relations  to 
other  States.     (6.  Arbitrary  enforcements  of  this  "  balance  of 
power,"  destroyed  the  autonomies  of  Poland,  Silesia,  and  var- 
ious countries,  once  independently  governed.     (7.)   The  latest 
treaty   made,   under   its   operation,     has   transferred   several 
provinces   governed   by    Turkey   to   the    control   of    Eussia, 
Austria   and   Great   Britain.     (8.)    "Balance   of   power,"    in 
Europe,  continually  endangers  peaceful  relations,  and  operates 
as  a  standing  menace  against  the  autonomies  of  border  States. 


CHAPTER  II. 


COMITY    AND   AUTONOMY. 


j^ n,)  The  cojnTY  of  nations  tolerates   many   abuses   of 

arbitrary  power  exercised  by  civilized  governments.  (2.)  It 
permits  strong  governments  to  oppress  and  abolish  weaker 
ones,  and  to  destroy  nationalities,  under  pretext  of  civilizing 
or  protecting  them.  (3.)  Through  its  international  agreements 
or  understandings,  large  portions  of  Asia,  comprising  a  hund- 
red million  inhabitants,  have  been  made  tributary  to  the  small 
insular  kingdom  of  Great  Britain.  (4.)  Native  governments 
of  Hindostan  have  been  abolished,  and  replaced  by  British 
rulers.  (5.)  In  like  manner,  portions  of  Africa,  America,  and 
insular  Asia,  have  been  brought  under  arbitrary  control  of 
Great  Britain;  and  several  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  of 


37^  Comity  and  Autonomy. 

American  seas,  are  governed  by  her  military  forces  and  civil 

autliority. 

II. — (1.)  The  aggrandizement  of  governments,  through 
colouial  possessions,  and  the  control  of  large  territories,  be- 
yond their  own  native  soil,  has  always  been  a  prolific  cause  of 
wars  between  nations,  and  of  internecine  strife.  (2.)  Interne- 
cine strife  is  an  agitation  of  society  which  becomes  manifest 
in  rebellion  and  civil  war.  (3.)  British  rule  over  India  is 
maintained  by  arbitrary  repression  of  native  population ;  aud 
the  military  forces  of  Great  Britain  are  employed  in  Africa 
and  Polynesia,  to  supj^ress  frequent  insurrections.  (4.)  To 
maintain  such  unnatural  governmental  relations,  with  alien 
subjects,  the  citizens  of  Great  Britain  at  home  are  heavily 
taxed,  and  excessive  burthens  are  imposed  upon  tributary 
nations.  (5.)  From  such  inordinate  taxation,  the  thirteen 
British  colonies  of  America  emancipated  their  communities, 
by  the  Revolution  of  1776;  and  their  progress,  as  a  nationality, 
has  since  been  based  on  autonojiic  institutions,  as  an  example  for 
a'l  communities  worthy  to  be  free.  (6.)  The  UiaTED  States  of 
Ajierica  present  the  only  solution,  thus  far,  of  that  disputed 
problem — human  capacity  for  self-government.  (7.)  If  the 
Republic,  left  by  G-eoege  Washtsgtox,  can  be  overthrown  like 
all  previous  republics,  the  inherent  unfitness  of  men  to  subsist 
in  freedom  must  be  admitted,  and  despotism  will  dominate  the 
future  of  humanity,  as  it  has  subjected  mankind,  and  de- 
based manhood,  through  an  immemorial  past. 

III. — (1.)  The  lessons  presented  by  ancient  and  modern 
governments  are  of  similar  weight  and  purport.  (2.)  Nature, 
through  language,  climate,  and  physical  lines  of  sepai'ation,  di- 
vides and  distinguishes  different  nationalities.  (3.)  Human 
governments,  in  all  ages,  have  departed  from  Nature's  indica- 
tions, by  their  efforts  to  subject  one  people  to  another,  and  to 
merge  different  nations  under  one  rule.  (4.)  The  Assyrian 
government,  in  early  centuries,  abused  its  power,  in  the  subjec- 
tion of  neighboring  tribes  and  nationalities.  (5.)  It  became 
an  unwieldy   despotism  over  provinces  inhabited  by  people 


History  of  Governments.  377 

who  differed  in  language,  religion,  color  and  habits.  (6.)  It 
fell'  to  pieces,  when  central  power  decayed,  after  Alexan- 
der's reign  ;  and  the  Assyrian  provinces  were  divided,  under 
military  adventurers.  (7.)  In  like  manner,  the  Roman  em]nre, 
after  subjecting  all  known  countries  to  its  military  dominion, 
became  a  prey  to  foreign  tribes  of  barbarians  ;  and  was  broken 
up,  after  Coustantine's  reign,  into  governments  ruled  by  mil- 
itary chiefs,  Roman  and  barbarian.  (8.)  ('harlemagne,  in 
feudal  ages,  annexed  Germany  and  Italy  to  France  ;  but  his 
deat*h  left  half  his  dominions  to  military  adventurers.  (9.) 
Genghis  Khan,  Tamerlane,  and  other  conquering  monarchs, 
sabjected  India  to  their  rule ;  but,  when  they  passed  away, 
their  possessions  were  seized  by  chiefs  of  armies,  and  new 
governments  replaced  the  central  despotism.  (10.)  So,  in  his 
time,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  marched  his  armies  over  continental 
Europe,  and  even  menaced  Asia  with  his  arbitrary  control. 
(11.)  But  his  dominion  fell  to  pieces,  after  the  battle  of 
Waterloo;  and  the  monarchs  of  Europe  returned  to  their 
thrones,  to  re  establish  kindoms,  under  their  "Balance  of 
Power"  demands. 

IV. — (1.)  CoiNnTY  OF  Nations  has  never  yet  established  the 
vital  principle  of  government,  which  is  AUTONOinr,  or  self  gov- 
ernment. (2.)  If  every  nation  were  permitted  to  decide  upon 
its  own  boundaries  of  soil,  according  to  agreement  of  national- 
alities,  there  would  be  no  occasion  for  dynastic  wars ;  and  no 
government  would  then  question  another's  right  to  independ- 
ence. (3.)  Dynastic  wars  have  in  all  ages,  been  more  frequent 
than  other  belligerent  differences  between  nations.  (4.)  Quar- 
rels that  result  from  misunderstandings  of  national  rights,  or  of 
international  relations,  might  then  be  settled  by  international 
courts  of  arbitration,  created  by  joint  appointment  of  supreme 
judges ;  and  revolutions  would  only  take  i^lace,  when 
local  governments  abused  authority  and  oppressed  their 
people.  (5.)  No  standing  armies,  no  frontier  fortresses,  and  no 
iron  clad  war- ships,  would  be  required.  (0.)  Vast  suras  of 
money,  now  raised  by  taxes,  to  be  expended  in  wars,  and  prep- 


378  Comity  and  Autonomy. 

arations  for  wars,  miglit  be  employed  to  assure  the  prosper- 
ity of  nations  and  communities,  througli  works  of  internal 
improvements.  (7.)  Commerce  would  then  flow,  naturally, 
from  land  to  land,  according  as  commercial  demands  increased, 
through  prosperous  conditions  of  people  in  all  countries.  (8.) 
Markets  would  never  be  overstocked  with  manufactures,  be- 
cause all  products  of  industry  would  be  consumed  by  people  as 
they  increased  in  prosperity,  and  were  able  to  purchase  luxur- 
ies, as  well  as  the  comforts  and  necessaries  of  life.  (9.)  Such 
conditioning  of  governments  and  society — every  nation  gov- 
erning itself — every  people  aided  to  become  industrious — would 
constitute  a  counTY  of  governments  such  as  Natui'e  indicates ; 
as  her  true  relations  of  people  to  people,  of  families  to  families, 
and  of  individuals  to  individuals — helping  one  another,  and 
hurting  neither  property  nor  life. 


CONCLUSION. 


Xt — (1.)  The  History  of  Governmexts  lias  been  brought 
down  from  years  of  earliest  record  to  the  present  year.  Peace, 
in  Europe  and  America,  is  interrupted  only  by  the  struggles 
of  a  few  tribes  and  nations  to  maintain  their  own  autonomies, 
against  invading  powers.  (2.)  The  goTernments  of  Russia  and 
Turkey,  after  an  exhaustive  war,  terminated  their  quarrel  by 
stipulations  agreed  upon,  in  a  congress  of  European  powers, 
convened  at  Berlin,  in  1877.  (3.)  The  empire  of  Germany, 
constituted  after  a  struggle  between  the  forces  of  France  and 
Prussia,  is  governed  by  a  constitution,  which  modifies  in  soma 
respects  the  arbitrary  authority  exercised  by  an  imperial 
government.  (4.)  The  kingdom  of  Spain,  after  a  revolution 
which  left  a  transient  republican  government,  is  governed  by 
a  king  chosen  by  the  Cortes  or  national  assembly.  (5.)  The 
republic  of  France,  maintaining  a  standing  army,  is  still 
menaced  by  perils  arising  therefrom,  whenever  some  successful 
revolution  may  confer  power  upon  a  military  adventurer.  (6.) 
The  kingdom  of  Great  Britain,  with  its  subject  empire  of 
India,  depends  mainly  upon  prosperous  commerce  and  manu- 
factures, to  preserve  peace  at  home  and  maintain  im^jenal 
dominion  over  extensive  territories  classed  as  British  Pos- 
sessions. (7.)  The  extensive  northern  empire  of  Russia  is 
disturbed  by  democratic  agitations,  which  extend  through  all 
classes  of  its  people,  who  are  oppressed  by  a  despotism  respon- 
sible to  no  authority  but  its  own.  (8.)  The  nations  and  tribes 
once  ruled  by  Assyrian  and  Persian  dynasties,  in  Asia  Minor, 
8T» 


38o 


Conclusion. 


are  subjected  to  rapacious  governors,  who  over-tax  and  oppress 
the  industrial  classes,  under  Turkish  military  rule,  from  ISji-ia 
and  Egypt  to  the  borders  of  Russia.  (9.)  The  united  kingdoin 
of  Italy  has  been  constitiited  by  a  combination  of  all  Italian 
States,  including  states  of  the  Church,  as  a  constitutional 
monarchy,  with  its  capitol  at  Rome  ;  and  all  temporal  domin- 
ion, exercised  during  twelve  hundred  years,  has  passed  away, 
from  the  Pope  of  Rome.  (10.)  The  impei'ial  government  of 
Austria  is  now  confined  to  a  few  German  States,  and  her 
Sclavonic  provinces ;  all  Italian  provinces  being  lost  to  her, 
through  wars  with  Prussia  and  France. 

II. — (1.)  Other  States  of  Europe  conserve  their  forms  of 
governments  as  presented  in  our  History,  before  its  revision. 
( 2  )  Minor  States,  embraced  in  the  German  confederation,  as 
more  or  less  autonomic,  and  those  States  bordering  Austria 
and  Turkey,  known  as  the  "Danubian  Principalities"  have  not 
been  separately  described  ;  because  their  forms  of  government 
are  sufficiently  defined  in  chapters  upon  other  Minor  States. 
(3.)  For  this  reason,  also,  we  have  omitted  special  mention  of 
several  Asiatic  States,,  embracing  Bueiviah,  Si^m,  Affghan- 
iSTAii,  KHrk'A,  and  some  island  kingdoms  of  Asia;  Madagascae, 
Abyssinia,  Soudan,  Ashaxtee,  Timbuctoo,  Dahomey;  barbarian  or 
savage  kingdoms  of  Africa;  the  kingdom  of  Muscat,  in  Arabia- 
and  those  Arabian  communities  which  subsist  in  Mount 
Lebanon,  as  Druses.  Makonites,  and  other  tribal  autonomies, 
more  or  less  subjected  to  Turkisb  rule. 

III. — (1.)  Our  History  OF  Governments  comprises  all  that 
is  interesting  or  useful  to  comprehend,  in  a  work  treating  of 
governmental  structures,  as  they  have  been  modified  under 
changes  of  time.  (2.)  If  its  pages  likewise  conipi'ehend  an  in- 
structive moral,  suggested  by  comparison,  or  a  lesson  intimated 
by  facts,  they  will  subserve  the  purpose  kept  in  view.  (3.) 
That  purpose  was  to  show,  through  simple  detail,  the  superioi-- 
ity  of  self-yovernment  over  all  subjective  governments,  and  to 
illustrate  the  natural  truth,  that,  if  manhood  cannot  become 
a  law  unto  itself,  and  a  conservator  of  its  own  indej'endence, 


History  of  Governments.  381 

.here  is  no  form  of  government  or  law  that  can  preserve  man- 
hood in  liberty  of  life.  (4. )  Nationalities  are  aggregations  of 
individualisms ;  and  if  manhood  forsake  the  individual,  it  will 
abuudon  the  nation.  (5.)  Armit-s,  wLiicli  dumuiaie  com- 
munities of  slaves  or  subjects,  conserve  military  manhood,  but 
at  the  loss  of  moral  manhood;  and  the  loss  of  moral  manhood 
mav  make  slaves  of  soldiers  as  well  as  of  citizens.  (IV  )  Citizen 
soldiers,  such  as  subsist  in  tribe-life,  are  the  only  military  type 
for  civilized  communities  to  accept;  and  the  armed  citizen  of 
an  orderly  commonwealth  is  the  best  conservator  of  manhood, 
as  he  is  the  best  type  of  military  force.  (7.)  With  every 
nationality  in  the  enjoyment  of  autonomic  manhood,  a  Militia 
establishment  is  the  best  military  establishment ;  because  it 
can  be  subjected  to  no  chief  and  no  paymaster.  (8.)  And  with 
MANHOOD  in  government,  to  preside  over  alv.nhood  in  society ; 
community  aiding  community — individual  aiding  individual — 
toward  industrial  prosperity  ;  autonomy  would  elevate  every 
nation,  and  civilization  might  make  possible  a  Ui<iVEasAL 
Commonwealth. 


THE    END* 


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